John  S^vett 


^t        ^'.A? 


S90 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH: 


A    MANUAL    FOR    USE    IN    CONNECTION    WITH    THE 

WRITTEN    ENGLISH    WORK    OF    SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS 


BY 


GEORGE   P.    BUTLER 

Formerly  English  Master  in  the  Lawrenceville  School 
Lawrenceville,  N.J. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  :•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


•••   •         •        • 

•  ••  •      •    •• 


Copyright,  1894,  bv 
AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY 


BUT.    SCH.   ENG 

£DUCATS>ON4UEFi: 


PREFACE. 


The  conviction  seems  to  be  steadily  gaining  strength, 
that  EngUsh  teaching  in  secondary  schools  should 
include  (i)  reading  and  discussing  selections  from 
standard  English  authors,  (2)  constant  practice  in  com- 
position, (3)  systematic  correction  of  the  pupil's  work, 
and  (4)  the  study  of  rhetoric  for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vating the  pupil's  power  of  criticising  and  improving 
his  own  writing. 

An  ample  number  of  standard  works  have  been 
published  in  convenient  form  for  school  use,  and  the 
majority  of  English  teachers  are  employing  them  in 
class  work.  For  this  reason  the  time  allowed  for  the 
study  of  rhetoric  has,  in  most  schools,  been  much 
reduced.  However,  the  study  of  rhetoric  cannot  be 
safely  ignored ;  for  in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  bene- 
fit from  practice  in  composition  and  from  the  corrections 
of  the  teacher,  the  class  must  be  made  familiar  with 
certain  rules  for  avoiding  errors  in  the  use  of  language 
and  for  the  improvement  of  style.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
rhetoric  is  now  being  taught  to  younger  classes  than 
ever  before ;  and  teachers  of  English  seem  to  demand 

541770 


4  PREFACE. 

to-day  a  manual  expressing  the  rules  and  principles  of 
good  style  in  such  a  way,  that  a  scholar  fifteen  or 
sixteen  years  of  age  can  easily  appreciate  their  appli- 
cation to  his  own  work. 

The  old-style  text-books  of  rhetoric  are  fast  being  re- 
placed by  books  written  with  these  aims  more  distinctly 
in  view ;  but  in  many  cases  the  multiplication  of  rules, 
their  illogical  classification,  or  the  addition  of  erroneous 
or  irrelevant  matter,  has  impaired  the  usefulness  of 
these  books;  and  not  infrequently  time  is  wasted  on 
examples  not  worthy  of  the  attention  of  intelligent 
scholars.  The  work  now  presented  provides  what  the 
author  believes  to  be  a  logical  classification  of  the  best 
directions  for  avoiding  errors  and  securing  a  good 
style.  Under  each  rule  are  explained  the  ways  in 
which  it  is  most  frequently  violated  ;  one  or  two  exam- 
ples are  given  and  corrected;  and  other  examples  are 
added,  to  be  corrected  by  the  pupil.  Many  of  these 
examples  have  been  taken  from  the  work  of  school  or 
college  pupils,  or  from  the  pages  of  magazines  and 
newspapers. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  of  classifying  errors 
can  be  seen  through  the  following  illustration  :  Sole- 
cisms may  be  differentiated  until  they  number  many 
hundreds  ;  but  they  may  also  be  grouped  under  sig- 
nificant heads,  so  that  twenty  rules,  if  observed,  will 
correct  the  common  errors  of  inexperienced  writers  ; 
while,  if  a  specialization  of  errors  is  thought  desirable, 


PREFACE.  5 

this  can  be  found  in  the  explanations  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  rules  are  violated. 

A  common  method  employed  by  English  teachers  in 
correcting  essays  is  to  place  a  number  or  symbol  over  a 
faulty  word  or  passage,  showing  that  a  certain  rule  in 
the  text-book  has  been  violated.  If  the  rules  indicated 
are  general  in  their  bearing,  the  specific  application 
being  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  pupil,  the  impression 
is  deeper  and  more  lasting,  as  in  some  measure  the 
fault  has  been  detected  by  himself.  As  the  number 
of  symbols  is  multiplied,  this  system  becomes  unman- 
ageable. 

To  reduce  the  number  of  rules  has  been  one  of  the 
principal  aims  in  this  work ;  but  the  chief  effort  of  the 
author  has  been  to  state  the  rules  and  all  other  matter 
in  such  a  way  that  the  scholar  will  feel  the  useful- 
ness of  his  lessons.  The  technical  terms  of  rhetoric, 
often  so  bewildering  to  young  minds,  have  been  avoided 
as  far  as  possible,  and  never  used  without  an  expla- 
nation of  their  meaning.  At  the  beginning  of  each 
subject,  its  bearing  on  the  main  object  in  view  is 
explained. 

Examples  of  faulty  sentences  have  been  introduced  in 
order  to  cultivate  the  power  of  criticism ;  but  these  should 
not  be  dwelt  on  to  the  exclusion  of  examples  of  good 
English.  Selections  from  authors  remarkable  for  their 
good  style  have  been  included  in  Chapters  IV.  and  V.  of 
Part  I.  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  be  able  to  read 


6  PREFACE. 

with  the  class,  without  referring  to  another  volume, 
passages  of  special  merit  as  regards  the  points  dis- 
cussed in  these  chapters. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  rhetoric,  it  will  be 
of  great  advantage  for  the  pupil  to  know  something  of 
the  structure  and  history  of  the  English  language, 
especially  those  facts  that  will  explain  to  him  the  way 
in  which  English  words  have  come  into  use,  and  the 
changes  in  their  form  and  meaning.  Accordingly,  in 
the  opening  chapter,  there  are  included  a  few  pages  on 
EngHsh  etymology ;  and  in  the  Appendix  will  be  found 
a  brief  history  of  the  English  language. 

Part  I.  assumes  that  the  pupil  is  constantly  engaged 
in  composition  work.  Part  II.  provides  practical  sugges- 
tions for  his  written  exercises,  and  should  be  studied 
concurrently  with  Part  I. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Philosophy 
of  Style,  has  defined  with  exceptional  clearness  the  aim 
of  the  study  of  rhetoric.      His  definition  has  been  taken 

as  the  foundation  of  this  book. 

G.  P.  B. 

YoNKF.RS,  N.  Y.,  July,  1894. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction 9 

PART  I.  — RHETORIC. 

I.  English  Words 13 

II.  Correction  of  Errors  in  the  Use  of  Words    ....  35 

III.  Correction  of  Errors  in  Construction 50 

IV.  Clearness,  Force,  and  Harmony 75 

V.  Figures  of  Speech 119 

VI.  Errors  in  the  Use  of  Figures 152 

PART  II.— COMPOSITION. 

I.  Preliminary  Suggestions 159 

II.  Letter  Writing 163 

HI.  Exercises  from  Extracts 175 

IV.  Description  and  Narration 192 

V.  Essays 203 

VI.  Debate 212 

VII.  Punctuation  and  Capitals 218 

APPENDIX. 

I.  A  Short  History  of  the  English  Language     ....  240 

II.  Goldsmith's  "Deserted  Village" 256 

Index 267 

7 


INTRODUCTION. 


Object  of  the  Study  of  Rhetoric.  —  School  pupils  often 
become  discouraged,  because  they  do  not  understand 
the  practical  value  of  their  studies.  Our  first  care, 
therefore,  will  be  to  guard  against  difficulties  that  might 
arise  from  a  failure  to  understand  the  object  in  view 
in  the  study  of  rhetoric. 

The  aim  of  the  study  of  rhetoric  is  to  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  present  his  ideas  in  such  language  that  they  may 
be  apprehended  with  the  least  possible  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  reader  or  listener} 

To  secure  this  end,  the  words  used  must  be  the  best 
for  conveying  the  meaning ;  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion must  be  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  the  lan- 
guage ;  the  thought  must  be  expressed  with  all  possible 
clearness  and  force,  and  its  expression  should  be  agree- 
able to  the  ear. 

The  ability  to  put  one's  thoughts  in  writing  so  that 
another  can  understand  them  without  difficulty,  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  possessions  in  life.  In  some  cases 
this  power  seems  to  be  a  natural  gift.  In  the  majority 
of  cases,  however,  whatever  power  one  has  in  this  direc- 
tion can  be  improved  by  effort. 


1  See  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Philosophy  of  Style." 
9 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

Cotrectioin  of  Errors.  —  In  this  book,  the  method 
:e?iipl6ye(j  for  assisting  the  student  in  his  efforts  to 
improve  in  composition,  consists  partly  in  pointing  out 
the  errors  by  which  unskillful  writers  most  frequently 
fall,  short  of  the  above  requirements,  and  in  explaining 
how  to  correct  these  errors  and  how  to  avoid  them ;  for 
to  a  certain  extent  improvement  in  writing  comes  from 
removing  imperfections  and  blemishes,  and  leaving  only 
that  which  is  sound. 

However,  merely  correcting  errors  will  not  of  itself 
make  a  good  writer.  Before  any  correction  can  be 
made,  there  must  be  something  to  correct.  Therefore 
the  first  chapter  of  this  book  provides  instruction 
designed  to  give  the  scholar  some  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish words,  —  the  vehicle  which  he  must  use  for  the 
expression  of  his  ideas.  In  the  Appendix  there  is  a 
history  of  the  English  language,  for  use  in  connection 
with  this  chapter.  The  other  chapters  of  Part  I.  are 
devoted  to  correcting  errors  in  the  use  of  words,  and 
errors  in  grammar ;  and  to  the  improvement  of  sentences 
in  clearness,  force,  and  harmony. 

Exercise  in  Composition.  —  Precept  is  valueless  with- 
out practice.  The  student  must  write  continually  if 
he  wishes  to  improve  his  powers  of  composition.  It 
is  often  very  difficult  to  find  subjects  for  compulsory 
exercises  in  composition.  No  one  appreciates  this 
fact  better  than  boys  or  girls  from  whom  essays 
are  due  the  next  day.  The  advice  to  write  often  will 
not  be  followed  unless  the  way  for  writing  is  made 
easier  than  it  appears  to  most  young  people.  Accord- 
ingly, the  second  part  of  this  book  gives  suggestions 
that  are  intended  to  make  the  work  of  composition 
easier  and  more  attractive.     There   are  many  matters 


INTRODUCTION.  1 1 

of  form  that  have  been  adopted  in  order  to  make 
written  language  more  readily  intelligible,  such  as 
paragraphing,  punctuation,  and  capitalization.  The 
most  important  rules  of  form  are  given  in  Chapter  VII. 
of  Part  II. 

Reading.  —  Besides  learning  rules  of  rhetoric,  and 
writing  exercises  in  composition,  there  is  another 
equally  important  means  of  securing  improvement  in 
writing;  namely,  reading.  One  cannot  write  well  in 
any  language  until  he  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  it, 
not  merely  with  the  words  used  in  ordinary  conversation, 
but  also  with  the  literature  of  the  language. 

There  is  great  disparity  in  the  attainments  of  pupils 
of  the  same  age ;  but  in  no  case  is  this  disparity  so 
marked  as  in  the  ability  to  use  the  pen ;  and  except  in 
cases  of  remarkable  natural  endowment,  the  inequality 
of  attainment  is  explained  by  the  amount  of  reading 
done  by  each  pupil.  Some  at  the  age  of  fifteen  have 
read  nothing  beyond  nursery  rhymes  and  schoolbooks, 
while  others  can  count  scores  of  volumes  of  standard 
literature  carefully  read. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  boy  who  has  read  much 
will  write  better  than  the  boy  who  has  read  little, 
even  though  the  rules  of  rhetoric  be  more  thoroughly 
mastered  by  the  latter.  Indeed,  the  study  of  rhetoric 
can  be  made  profitable  only  by  acquiring,  in  connection 
with  a  knowledge  of  its  principles,  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  works  of  standard  authors. 

To  read  much,  one  must  read  rapidly.  It  is  not  right 
to  distress  the  boy  who  loves  to  read  by  telling  him  that 
all  books  must  be  read  slowly  and  with  great  care.  On 
the  contrary,  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  out 
of  school  for  pleasure,  and  not  as  a  task.     Moreover,  by 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

rapid  reading  one  will  learn  much  about  the  meaning 
and  use  of  words  from  the  context,  and  how  to  grasp 
the  meaning  of  sentences  and  paragraphs  quickly. 

There  are,  however,  some  books  which  repay  one  for 
all  the  time  and  study  spent  upon  them.  The  reading 
of  annotated  English  classics,  with  care  to  understand 
every  word,  sentence,  allusion,  and  reference,  is  an 
excellent  exercise  for  the  English  classroom.  This 
kind  of  reading  or  study  gives  the  pupil  an  exact 
knowledge  of  his  language,  which  can  be  gained  in  no 
other  way,  besides  much  valuable  information  in  other 
branches  of  knowledge.  As  each  book  is  read,  the 
author,  the  purpose  for  which  he  wrote,  and  the  age 
in  which  he  lived,  should  be  borne  in  mind ;  and,  if 
possible,  the  pupil's  reading  should  be  planned  with  a 
view  to  gaining  an  insight  into  the  development  and 
growth  of  the  English  tongue  and  the  history  of  Eng- 
lish literature. 

The  practice  of  reading  aloud  is  found  to  be  specially 
advantageous;  because  it  insures  the  reading  of  every 
word,  allows  time  for  an  impression  to  be  made  upon 
the  reader's  mind,  and,  if  the  book  has  been  well  selected, 
accustoms  the  ear  to  the  sound  of  well-chosen  words 
and  well-formed  sentences.  In  the  same  way,  com- 
mitting to  memory  the  masterpieces  of  poetry  and 
prose  is  of  great  assistance  in  learning  to  write.^ 

^  Goldsmith's  "  Deserted  Village,"  a  poem  in  which  descriptions  of 
slightly  varying  scenes  are  given  with  charming  accuracy  in  the  choice 
of  words,  has  been  printed  in  the  Appendix  of  this  book,  for  the  conven- 
ience of  teachers  who  may  wish  their  classes  to  commit  to  memory  por- 
tions of  the  poem. 


Part   1/ 

RHETORIC. 


CHAPTER   I. 

ENGLISH  WORDS. 

Authority  for  Use  of  Words.  —  If  the  writer's  aim  is 
to  save  the  reader  the  expenditure  of  all  unnecessary 
energy,  the  writer  should  use  only  such  words  as  belong 
to  the  language  in  which  he  is  writing,  and  should  use 
them  in  the  proper  sense. 

"  Use  is  the  law  of  language T  By  this  is  meant  that 
any  word  used  by  the  best  English  writers  of  the  present 
age  is  an  English  word,  and  the  sense  in  which  they  use 
it  determines  the  meaning  of  that  word  in  the  language. 

Therefore,  if  one  is  told  that  any  word  in  his  writing 
or  conversation  is  not  an  English  word,  or  that  he  has 
not  used  it  in  the  right  sense  or  with  the  proper  shade 
of  meaning,  he  can  defend  himself  only  by  quoting  some 
authority ;  namely,  writers  of  high  standing  who  have 
used  that  word  in  recent  times  to  express  the  same 
meaning  as  that  in  which  he  used  it.  If  he  can  quote 
only  one,  the  defense  is  weak ;  if  he  can  quote  several, 
his  use  of  the  word  is  correct. 

The  Dictionary.  —  Discussions  with  reference  to  words 
are  generally  settled  by  referring  to  a  dictionary ;   but 

1  To  be  studied  concurrently  with  Part  II.,  p.  159. 


14  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

this  is^  only  u  convenient  way  of  referring  to  standard 
a'kthors, ;  I  'for  •  in^  the'  dictionary  we  may  find  the  way 
in  which  a  word  is  spelled,  its  pronunciation  and  deri- 
vation, and  the  sense  in  which  it  is  used  by  standard 
authors.  We  may  also  find  whether  the  word  has  gone 
out  of  use  or  recently  come  into  use,  and  whether  it  is 
provincial  or  local,  slang  or  rarely  used,  technical  or 
vulgar. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  word  quixotic  is  used, 
and  some  one  raises  the  question  whether  it  is  an 
English  word.  The  dictionary  is  consulted,  and  we 
find  the  word  there  spelled,  the  pronunciation  indicated, 
and  the  definition  given,  as  follows:  "Quix-ot'ic,  a. 
Like  Don  Quixote;  romantic  to  extravagance."  Then 
follows  a  quotation  from  Prescott :  "  Feats  of  quixotic 
gallantry."  As  we  find  no  statement  that  the  word  is 
rare,  obsolete,  slang,  new,  or  technical,  we  know  that 
more  authors  could  have  been  quoted,  and  that  it  is  in 
good  usage  as  an  English  word. 

We  might  likewise  find  that  the  verb  ashame^  equiva- 
lent to  the  verb  shame,  is  rarely  used ;  that  the  verb  orn 
(ornament)  is  altogether  obsolete;  and' that  the  noun 
altruism  is  of  recent  adoption  into  the  language.  The 
word  crank,  when  used  to  denote  an  eccentric  person, 
is  stamped  as  colloquial.  To  bulldoze  (intimidate)  is 
United  States  slang ;  and  only  an  illiterate  person  will 
speak  of  a  worriting  child. 

All  these  facts  can  be  gathered  from  the  dictionary  by 
a  few  moments'  search.  Indeed,  the  dictionary  is  the 
best  text-book  for  the  study  of  words  ;  and  in  the  larger 
or  unabridged  editions  can  be  found  all  the  informa- 
tion needed  concerning  every  word  in  the  language.  It 
is  important,  therefore,  that  every  student  should  know 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  15 

how  to  use  the  dictionary ;  that  he  should  look  up  every 
word  of  which  he  is  at  all  doubtful,  and  make  himself 
certain  as  to  its  use ;  and  that  every  time  he  is  corrected 
in  the  use  of  a  word,  he  should  find  out  exactly  what  his 
mistake  is,  and  thus  guard  himself  against  making  a 
similar  mistake. 

As  a  rule,  school  pupils  do  not  refer  very  often 
to  the  dictionary ;  and  those  who  do,  from  careless- 
ness or  ignorance,  generally  fail  to  get  all  the  infor- 
mation that  they  need.  Therefore,  we  shall  devote  a 
few  pages  to  suggestions  as  to  the  use  of  the  dictionary. 

HOW   TO    USE    THE    DICTIONARY. 

Ownership.  —  Every  student  should  own  an  English 
dictionary  not  smaller  than  the  Webster's  "Academic 
Dictionary,"  and  should  make  a  point  of  keeping  it  in  a 
place  convenient  for  use.  From  such  editions  the  pupil 
may  find,  with  respect  to  all  the  words  that  he  would 
be  likely  to  use  in  writing  or  speaking,  the  following 
information :  — 
I.   The  Spelling. 

II.  The  Pronunciation,  indicated  by  division  into 
syllables,  by  accent,  and  by  marks  showing  the  sounds 
of  vowels  and  consonants.  These  marks  are  called 
diacritical  marks,  and  are  explained  at  the  beginning  of 
the  dictionary  and  at  the  bottom  of  each  page.  Words 
especially  difficult  to  pronounce  are  spelled  phonetically 
in  brackets  following  the  correct  spelling. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  student  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory any  table  of  diacritical  marks ;  for  most  dictionaries 
contain  in  the  opening  pages  a  key  to  their  system  of 
indicating  pronunciation,  and  explanations  in  footnotes 


l6  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

on  each  page.  He  should,  however,  be  sufficiently 
familiar  with  these  symbols  to  be  able  to  pronounce  any 
word  without  other  aid. 

III.  The  Part  of  Speech,  indicated  by  an  initial  letter 
or  letters  in  small  Italics.  A  second  initial  letter  is 
given  if  the  word  is  more  than  one  part  of  speech. 
The  various  forms  of  inflected  words  are  indicated  in 
brackets  following  the  part  of  speech ;  but  regular  plu- 
rals and  comparisons  are  not  given. 

Ex.  Ea'ger-ly,  adv?- 
im-mov'a-ble,  a. 
Stop,  v.t.     [-ped ;  -ping.] 

Scratch,  v.t.      [-ed;   -ing.]      To  rub  or  tear  the  surface 
with  something  sharp,     n.  A  slight  incision  or  laceration. 

IV.  The  Derivation,  given  in  brackets,  which  contain 
the  original  or  foreign  word  or  words  from  which  the 
English  word  has  been  derived.  The  names  of  foreign 
languages  are  indicated  by  abbreviations.  The  foreign 
words  are  printed  in  Italics.  When  referring  to  the 
dictionary,  the  student  should  read  carefully  the  deri- 
vations given,  so  far  as  his  knowledge  of  foreign  lan- 
guages will  enable  him  to  understand  them. 

Ex.   Lu'nat-i«,  «.     \\j2X.lunaticus',  luna^\ki^vciQOXi.'\ 
Port,  n.     [Lat.  porius,  a  harbor.] 
Trib'u-la'tion,2  n.     [Lat.  tribulatio.l 

V.  The  Definition,  following  the  derivation.  If  the 
word  has  more  than  one  meaning,  the  several  definitions 
are  numbered  (see  definitions  of  cross^  stream,  stand,  in 

1  Every  dictionary  contains  a  table  explaining  the  meaning  of  all  the 
abbreviations  and  arbitrary  symbols  employed. 

2  The  heavier  of  two  accents  on  one  word  indicates  the  syllable  which 
receives  the  greater  stress. 


ENGLISH    WORDS.  1 7 

"Academic  Dictionary  ").     Often  a  list  of  synonyms,  or 
words  of  similar  meaning,  is  given  after  the  definition. 

Ex.   Val'or,  n.     [Lat.  valere,  to  be  strong.]     Strength  of  mind 
in  regard  to  danger ;  personal  bravery. 
Syft.  —  Courage ;  bravery ;  boldness  ;  fearlessness ;  heroism. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Warning  against  Carelessness.  —  Accuracy  is  espe- 
cially important  in  defining  a  word  or  term  ;  yet  there 
is  the  greatest  difficulty  in  securing  accuracy  in  defini- 
tions from  school  pupils.  They  generally  understand 
that  Latin  and  French  exercises  must  be  correct  in 
every  particular,  and  that  a  mistake  of  a  unit  in  addition 
makes  the  result  altogether  wrong  ;  but  ask  a  boy  to 
define  a  word,  and  the  answer  is  generally  given  with- 
out thought  or  care.  Nouns  are  defined  as  adjectives, 
adjectives  as  nouns,  verbs  as  participles. 

Until  a  class  has  had  some  definite  instruction  in 
definition,  the  pupils  will  make  ridiculous  mistakes  when 
asked  to  define  an  ordinary  word.  This  failure  is 
particularly  evident  when  students  who  have  had  no 
instruction  in  definition  take  up  geometry,  and  are  asked 
to  define  the  terms  for  which  definitions  must  be  given 
before  the  study  of  propositions  is  begun. 

Examples  of  Poor  Definitions.  —  Unless  the  definitions 
of  the  text-book  are  committed  to  memory,  the  answers 
seldom  meet  the  requirements  of  a  good  definition,  but 
are  often  like  the  following  examples  :  — 

A  surface  is  the  top  of  anything. 

A  line  is  when  you  draw  a  mark  from  one  place  to  another. 

A  straight  line  is  not  curved  at  all. 

An  axiom  is  something  that  you  know  already. 

A  right  angle  is  where  two  lines  come  straight  together. 

SCH.  ENG. — 2 


1 8  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

A  class  of  untrained  schoolboys  will  define  ordinary- 
words  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  following  examples :  — 

1.  Love,  v.t.     To  love  is  when  you  are  very  fond  of  any  one. 

2.  Swiftly,  adv.,  is  running  fast. 

3.  Bicycle,  n.^  a  two-wheeled  vehicle. 

4.  Cake,  n.,  sweet  bread. 

With  regard  to  Example  i,  certainly  a  transitive  verb 
must  be  defined  by  a  word  or  combination  of  words  that 
denotes  an  action.  The  above  definition  does  not  denote 
an  action,  but  the  time  of  an  action.  The  proper  defini- 
tion is,  (i)  to  regard  with  affection,  (2)  to  take  delight 
in.  A  true  definition  can  be  substituted  in  a  sentence 
for  the  word  defined,  and  leave  the  sense  substantially 
the  same.  - 

Ex.   I  love  my  mother :  I  regard  my  mother  with  affection. 

I  love  Beethoven's  music:    I  take  delight  in  Beethoven's 
music. 

In  Example  2,  the  definition  might  be  substituted  in 
some  sentences,  but  not  in  all.  He  came  runnhig  fast 
has  the  same  sense  as  he  came  swiftly^  if  the  individual 
referred  to  came  on  foot ;  but  the  substitution  will  not 
make  good  sense  in  the  line,  **  My  days  are  gliding 
swiftly  by.''  To  define  swiftly  properly,  we  must  have 
an  adverb  phrase;  as,  with  rapidity y  in  haste,  with 
quick  motion  or  speed. 

Example  3  is  correct  so  far  as  the  part  of  speech  is 
concerned,  but  the  definition  is  not  complete ;  for,  so 
defined,  a  bicycle  might  be  a  doctor's  gig,  a  sulky,  or 
a  cart  with  two  wheels.  A  good  definition  must 
go  further.  The  dictionary  defines  bicycle  as  a  two- 
wheeled  velocipede.  Velocipede  is  a  vehicle  propelled 
by  the  rider's  feet. 


ENGLISH  WORDS. 


19 


Example  4  is  fair ;  but  cake  must  contain  butter  or 
eggs,  neither  of  which  is  in  bread. 

Good  Definitions.  —  For  examples  of  good  definitions, 
look  up  in  a  dictionary  the  words  for  which  faulty  defi- 
nitions have  just  been  given,  and  other  words  whose 
meaning  you  are  familiar  with,  but  whose  definitions  you 
find  difficulty  in  stating  accurately. 


EXERCISES   IN   DEFINITION. 


Define  accurately  the  following  words  :  — 


1.  Arrest. 

2.  Blind. 

3.  Conductor. 

4.  Definition. 

5.  Dictionary. 

6.  Diacritical. 

7.  Excellent. 

8.  Ghost. 


9.  Initial. 

10.  Kick. 

11.  Level. 

12.  Medicine. 

13.  Normal. 

14.  Number. 

15.  Offend. 

16.  Perhaps. 


17.  Print. 

18.  Quire. 

19.  Rogue. 

20.  Roast. 

21.  Sacrifice. 

22.  Sick. 

23.  School. 

24.  Spend. 


25.  Table. 

26.  Tragedy. 

27.  Type. 

28.  Universe. 

29.  Vail. 

30.  Wonder. 

31.  Young. 

32.  Zenith. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Definition.  —  The  pupil  has  been  advised  to  make 
constant  and  careful  reference  to  the  dictionary.  He 
has  been  told  to  notice  the  derivation  of  English  words 
from  words  in  foreign  languages.  If  he  pays  attention 
to  the  advice,  he  will  often  find  that  the  derivation  of  a 
word  is  sufficient  to  explain  its  meaning.  For  example, 
the  word  biography  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words, 
y8/o9  (bioSy  life)  and  ypd(l)6tv  {grap/iem,  to  write).  When 
one  knows  this,  no  further  definition  is  needed  in  order 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  biography.  Expire  is  from 
the  Latin  ex  (out)  and  spirare  ( to  breathe)  ;  antecedent y 
from  ante  (before)  and  cedere  (to  go).  Somnambulist 
is  from  two  Latin  words,  meaning  sleep  and  walk.     The 


20  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

study  of  words,  and  of  their  formation  from  other 
words  or  roots  of  the  same  or  a  foreign  language,  is 
called  etymology.  The  aim  of  the  study  is  to  enable 
one  to  divide  any  word  into  its  parts,  separating  the 
root,  or  stem,  on  which  the  word  is  built,  from  the  ter- 
minations or  prefixes  which  are  added  to  the  root,  and 
from  the  meaning  of  its  parts  to  derive  the  meaning  of 
the  word. 

Changes  in  Meaning  of  Words.  —  There  are,  however, 
many  English  words  whose  meaning  is  no  longer  that 
denoted  by  their  derivation.  For  example,  the  word 
prevent  originally  meant  to  go  before^  and  was  so  used 
for  a  long  while  by  English  authors.  Prevent  now 
means  to  hinder  or  to  frustrate.  In  studying  etymology, 
one  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  sense  in  which  a  word 
is  used  by  the  best  authors  determines  the  meaning  of 
that  word. 

Although  the  present  use  of  eminent  writers  is  the 
only  criterion  for  our  choice  of  words,  we  must  remem- 
ber that  these  writers  have  secured  eminence  only 
because  of  their  power  to  present  their  thoughts  in 
the  English  language  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily 
understood.  Consequently  they  must  have  changed 
the  meaning  of  a  word,  or  coined  a  new  word,  only 
when  the  needs  of  the  language  demanded  such  changes 
or  additions,  and  only  in  such  ways  as  added  to  the  in- 
telligibility of  the  writer's  sentences.  As  the  usage  of 
such  writers  has  always  been  the  standard,  it  follows 
that  the  meaning  of  most  words  is  that  denoted  by  their 
derivation.  Hence  we  must  admit  the  importance  of 
etymology  to  aid  us  in  the  right  use  of  words,  even 
though  the  etymological  meaning  of  a  few  words  has 
been  altered. 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  21 

Philology.  —  In  its  widest  extent,  etymology  embraces 
a  complete  knowledge  of  all  the  languages  from  which 
any  English  words  have  been  derived,  and  also  of  all 
languages  in  which  we  find  words  related  to  English 
words.  In  order  to  understand  the  meaning  of  what 
has  just  been  said  of  the  relations  of  words,  the  pupil 
must  know  something  of  the  discoveries  that  have  been 
made  in  pJiilology^  or  the  study  of  language. 

The  Indo-European  Family.  —  Marked  resemblances 
among  most  of  the  ancient  and  modern  languages  of 
Europe,  Persia,  and  India,  indicate  that  they  are  de- 
rived from  a  single  language  spoken  in  prehistoric 
times  by  a  race  which  we  call  the  Indo-European,  or 
Aryan,  race. 

Though  it  has  not  been  possible  to  decide  where  the 
race  was  originally  located,  it  is  clear  that  successive 
emigrations  from  its  home  have  carried  the  Aryan  race 
and  speech  to  India,  Persia,  and  all  parts  of  Europe. 
The  varying  influences  to  which  the  different  portions 
of  the  race  were  subjected  after  their  separation  from 
the  main  body,  at  a  time  before  language  had  been 
reduced  to  writing,  will  account  for  all  the  differences 
existing  to-day  among  the  languages  of  the  Aryan 
family ;  while  the  resemblances  can  be  accounted  for 
on  no  hypothesis  except  that  of  a  common  origin. 

Philologists  have  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  order  in 
time  in  which  these  nations  left  the  Aryan  center; 
but  a  still  greater  similarity  existing  between  the  lan- 
guages of  groups  of  nations  proves  that  the  members 
of  each  of  these  groups,  after  their  separation  from 
the  original  race,  remained  together  for  a  long  time 
before  they  became  separate  nations.  In  case  of  the 
most  recent  migrations  of  the  tribes  of    Europe,  the 


22 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


records  of  history  agree  with  the  results  of  the  scien- 
tific study  of  language. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  main  groups  of  the 
Indo-European  family  and  the  principal  members  of 
each  group:  — 

THE  INDO-EUROPEAN,  OR  ARYAN,   LANGUAGES. 

Main  Branches.  Principal  Language  of  Each  Branch. 

1.  Indian.  The  ancient  and  modern  languages  of  India. 

Sanskrit,  preserved  in  the  Vedic  texts,  is  especially 
important  in  the  study  of  philology. 

2.  Persian.  The  ancient  and  modern  languages  of  Persia. 

3.  Greek.  Ancient  and  modern  Greek. 

4.  Italic  Latin,   and   the   Romance  languages   (derived 

from  the  language  of  Rome) ;  viz.,  Italian,  French, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese. 

5.  Celtic.  All  the  original  languages  of  western  Europe 

and  the  British  Isles.  The  Welsh  language  and 
the  native  dialects  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  Brittany,  are  the  only  living  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Celtic  branch. 

6.  Teutonic  Gothic,  Icelandic,  Swedish,  Danish,  Norwegian, 

German,  Dutch,  and  Anglo-Saxon,  or  English. 

7.  Baltic  Lithuanian,  Prussian,  and  Lettish. 

8.  Slavonic  Russian,  Bulgarian,  Servian,  Croatian,  and  Slo- 

venian. 


Cognate  Words.  —  As  has  been  said,  in  every  member 
of  this  family  of  languages  there  are  found  words  having 
a  strong  resemblance  to  words  expressing  the  same  idea 
in  other  languages  of  this  family.      The  words  which 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  23 

exhibit  the  most  striking  resemblance  are  those  used  in 
the  commonest  affairs  of  life.  When  we  look  up  brother 
in  an  unabridged  dictionary,  we  find,  amongst  other 
matter  in  brackets  after  the  word,  Anglo-Saxon,  bro- 
dor ;  Dutch,  broeder ;  German,  brtider  ;  Danish,  broder  ; 
Gothic,  brothar ;  Lithuanian,  brolis ;  Russian,  braf ; 
Latin,  f rater ;  Greek,  (f)pdTr}p  i^f rater). 

These  are  the  words  expressing  the  same  or  a  kin- 
dred idea  in  the  languages  mentioned.  They  are  called 
allied,  or  cognate,  words.  The  English  word  brother  is 
not  derived  from  the  'L.2X\xv  f rater,  or  the  German  bruder, 
nor,  except  in  case  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  English, 
which  are  earlier  and  later  forms  of  the  same  language, 
is  any  one  of  these  words  derived  from  any  other ;  but 
all  are  simply  the  alterations  which  one  word  of  the 
original  Indo-European  language  has  undergone  in  the 
speech  of  the  nations  descended  from  it  and  separated 
from  each  other. 

Derived  Words.  —  When,  however,  we  look  up  the 
English  word  fraternal  in  the  dictionary,  we  find  that 
it  comes  from  Latin  fraternalis,  from  fraternus.  This 
means  that  some  time  during  the  history  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  the  Latin  word  fraternalis  has  been  taken 
into  the  English  in  the  form  of  fraternal,  and  we  say 
that  fraternal  is  derived  from  the  Latin  fraternalis. 

t 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Knowledge  of  History  Necessary.  —  Many  English 
words  have  been  taken  from  other  languages ;  and  in 
order  satisfactorily  to  appreciate  the  study  of  English 
etymology,  it  is  necessary  to  know  a  few  facts  of  history 
that  will  explain  how  these  words  have  come  into  the 


24  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

language.  A  short  history  of  the  EngHsh  language 
will  be  found  in  the  appendix  of  this  book  (p.  240). 

Original  and  Foreign  Elements.  —  English  as  spoken 
to-day  is  Anglo-Saxon,  the  language  of  our  Teutonic 
forefathers,  with  additions  and  changes  brought  about 
by  national  conquest  and  foreign  influence.  The  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  foreign  element  in  English  con- 
sists of  Latin  words  that  have  come  into  our  speech, 
partly  through  military,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary  influ- 
ence, but  chiefly  through  the  Norman-French  conquest, 
French  itself  being  descended  directly  from  Latin. 

A  large  Greek  element  has  been  brought  in  to  meet 
the  needs  of  scientific  nomenclature ;  and  in  one  way  or 
another,  almost  every  language  has  contributed  to  the 
stock  of  English  words.  All  languages  borrow  foreign 
words,  but  in  this  respect  English  has  gone  beyond  any 
other  of  the  great  modern  languages. 

Proportion  of  Various  Elements.  —  In  considering  the 
proportion  which  one  element  of  the  language  bears  to 
the  whole  or  to  any  other  element,  we  must  make  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  entire  number  of  words  and  those 
in  common  use.  Of  the  words  in  "  Webster's  Interna- 
tional Dictionary,"  a  large  majority  are  of  foreign  origin. 
The  dictionaries,  however,  contain  many  words  rarely 
used,  and  many  words  used  only  in  the  technical  vocab- 
ularies of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Such  words  are  almost 
all  foreign. 

In  the  fullest  English  dictionaries  there  are  over  one 
hundred  thousand  words ;  yet  Shakespeare,  who  had 
a  large  vocabulary,  used  only  fifteen  thousand  differ- 
ent words.  Milton  employed  eight  thousand  different 
words  in  his  poetical  works.  The  everyday  vocabulary 
of  conversation   contains  only  three  or  four  thousand 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  2$ 

words,  while  that  of  the  uneducated  man  or  woman  is 
generally  limited  to  six  or  eight  hundred. .  Of  the  English 
words  ordinarily  used,  about  one  half  are  of  Saxon  ori- 
gin :  of  the  other  half,  four  fifths  are  from  the  Latin. 
Next  in  importance  is  the  Greek  element.  The  words 
from  all  other  sources  make  one  twentieth  of  the  entire 
vocabulary. 

THE   ANGLO-SAXON    ELEMENT. 

The  Most  Important.  —  Though  much  less  than  half  of 
the  entire  stock,  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  form  the  most 
important  element  of  the  English  language,  and  are  most 
necessary  for  the  construction  of  an  English  sentence. 
It  is  difficult  to  put  four  or  five  words  together  without 
using  one  or  more  Saxon  words.  All  the  articles,  pro- 
nouns, and  auxiliary  verbs,  nearly  all  prepositions  and 
conjunctions,  and  most  simple  adverbs,  are. Saxon  ;  while 
of  English  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  those  which 
most  frequently  present  themselves  to  the  mind  are 
from  the  same  source,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing list  of  Saxon  words :  man,  horse,  bird,  blood,  head, 
heart,  soul,  wind,  rain,  day,  water,  stone,  gold,  field, 
tree,  good,  evil,  high,  short,  cold,  hot,  hard,  soft,  white, 
black,  etc. ;  lie,  lay,  sit,  stand,  walk,  run,  do,  say,  take, 
have,  tell,  break,  think,  feel,  love,  fear,  find,  etc. 

Thus  it  is  clear  that  the  Saxon  element  contains  those 
words  that  must  be  repeated  most  frequently  in  making 
sentences.  If  we  take  the  writings  of  various  authors, 
and  count  the  words  including  repetitions  of  the  same 
words,  we  shall  find  that  far  more  than  half  are  Saxon. 
In  hardly  any  good  English  writing  will  the  ratio  of 
Saxon  words  to  the  total  number  used  fall  below  sev- 
enty to  one  hundred,  and  in  many  extracts  we  shall  find 


26  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

it  over  ninety  to  one  hundred.  Counting  in  this  way, 
we  find  that  Shakespeare  uses  from  eighty-five  to  ninety 
Saxon  words  in  a  total  of  one  hundred ;  Milton,  over 
eighty.  Johnson  is  noted  for  his  use  of  Latin  deriva- 
tives; but  in  every  hundred  words  in  the  preface  to  his 
dictionary,  a  fair  sample  of  his  writings,  he  uses,  on  the 
average,  seventy-two  Saxon  words. 

If,  however,  we  count  only  the  different  words  used, 
we  find  but  sixty-five  Saxon  words  in  every  hundred  of 
Shakespeare's  vocabulary.  About  the  same  ratio  exists 
in  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible ;  while  of  Milton's 
vocabulary,  the  Saxon  forms  less  than  one  third  of  the 
whole. 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Modern  English.  —  Much  of  the 
original  Anglo-Saxon  vocabulary  has  become  obsolete ; 
and  though  some  words  have  survived  unchanged  in 
form,  the  pronunciation  and  spelling  of  most  Saxon  words 
are  different  from  what  they  were  in  the  original  tongue. 
To  all  intents  and  purposes,  Anglo-Saxon  is  a  dead  lan- 
guage ;  and  until  one  has  studied  it  as  such,  he  can 
do  little  work  with  Anglo-Saxon  derivatives,  beyond 
the  limits  of  modern  English. 

The  roots  of  most  Saxon  derivatives  and  compounds 
appear  by  themselves  in  words  with  which  we  are  so 
familiar  that  their  meaning  is  evident  to  any  English- 
speaking  person.  It  takes  no  study  to  understand  the 
meaning  of  goodness,  wisely,  foremost,  alone,  sunshine, 
and  other  such  words.  The  simplest  expressions  of 
our  thoughts  and  the  earliest  words  of  childhood  are 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  do  not  need  to  be  defined  or  to  have 
their  derivation  traced  in  order  to  be  understood,  as 
may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  former  list  of  Saxon 
words. 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  2/ 

THE    LATIN    ELEMENT. 

Knowledge  of  Latin  Important.  —  Most  of  the  other 
half  of  our  words  come  from  the  Latin,  as  has  been 
already  explained.  Therefore,  without  some  knowledge 
of  Latin,  we  can  have  no  clear  idea  of  the  derivation  of 
many  English  words.  This  fact  furnishes  the  chief 
argument  in  favor  of  spending  the  greater  part  of 
one's  youth  in  the  study  of  Latin ;  and  the  most 
useful  application  of  the  knowledge  thus  gained,  is  as 
a  means  to  the  more  thorough  understanding  of  one's 
own  tongue. 

No  one  who  has  studied  Latin  even  a  single  year  need 
look  up  the  meaning  of  the  words  predict^  contradict, 
tmanimoMSy  uniform,  consequence,  animadvert,  descend, 
and  hundreds  of  other  words.  It  is  astonishing  how 
much  help  In  the  study  of  words  can  be  gained  from  a 
very  slight  acquaintance  with  Latin. 

The  Latin  words  that  have  been  taken  into  the  Eng- 
lish language  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions. 

The  First  Division  comprises  the  words  which  were 
left  by  the  military  occupation  of  Britain,  and  those 
Latin  words  which  entered  the  Anglo-Saxon  language 
before  the  Norman  Conquest.  The  former  are  very 
few  in  number.  The  best  known  examples  are  street 
(A.S.  street,  from  Lat.  strata  via,  a  paved  road)  and 
mile  (A.S.  mil,  from  Lat.  milia  passuum,  a  thousand 
paces).  The  name  Chester,  also  used  as  a  termina- 
tion in  the  names  of  English  towns,  as  Winchester 
and  Colchester,  is  derived  from  the  Latin  castra  (a 
camp  or  fortified  town).  The  following  are  exam- 
ples of  Latin  words  modified  by  use  during  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period. 


28 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


LATIN. 

ANGLO-SAXON. 

ENGLISH. 

Diabolus, 

ddoful, 

devU. 

Presbyter, 

prdost, 

priest. 

Pondo, 

pund, 

pound. 

Moneta, 

my  net  (money), 

mint. 

The  Second  Division  includes  all  Latin  words  that 
have  come  into  English  through  the  Norman-French. 

Ex.   Amiable,  ancestor,  circuit,  faucet,  people,  pursuit,  stable. 

Latin  words  which  have  been  adopted  through  the 
Norman-French  are  often  so  changed  in  form  that  it 
is  difficult  to  recognize  them.  Issue  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  exire  through  the  old  French  issir. 

The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  changes 
which  Latin  words  have  undergone  in  passing  through 
the  French :  — 


LATIN. 

FRENCH. 

ENGLISH. 

Cantus, 

chant. 

chant. 

Fames, 

famine, 

famine. 

Fallere, 

faillir. 

fail. 

Maritare, 

marier. 

marry. 

Percipere, 

percevoir, 

perceive, 

Regalis, 

royal. 

royal. 

Cambire  (cambiare), 

changer, 

change. 

Cuneus, 

coin, 

coin. 

The  Third  Division  includes  those  words  that,  through 
the  courts  of  law,  the  church  service,  or  through  scien- 
tific and  literary  influence,  have  been  taken  from  the 
Latin  into  English  since  the  Norman  Conquest,  with- 
out passing  through  the  French,  or  at  least  with  little 
change  from  their  original  form. 

Ex.   Radius,  genius,  nucleus,  legal,  pontifical,  tribulation,  describe, 
circular,  circumvent. 


ENGLISH    WORDS. 


29 


In  some  cases  the  English  has  taken  words  directly 
from  the  Latin,  and  the  same  words  have  come  into 
English  through  the  Norman-French.  Thus  one  Latin 
word  provides  two  English  words  of  slightly  different 
form  and  meaning,  as  exemplified  below. 


ENGLISH   THROUGH 

LATIN. 

ENGLISH. 

THE   FRENCH. 

Benedictio, 

benediction, 

benison. 

Pauper, 

pauper, 

poor. 

Captivus, 

captive, 

caitiff. 

Fragilis, 

fragile, 

frail. 

Factio, 

faction, 

fashion. 

Radius, 

radius. 

ray. 

OTHER  ELEMENTS. 

The  Other  elements  which  compose  the  English  lan- 
guage may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

L  The  Greek  Element,  comprising  chiefly  those  words 
which  have  been  deliberately  coined  or  borrowed  to  meet 
the  demand  for  words  to  represent  the  new  ideas  and 
relations  brought  to  light  by  the  progress  of  science 
and  philosophy.  When  an  instrument  was  invented 
which  enabled  a  person  instantly  to  communicate  intel- 
ligence to  another  at  a  greater  distance  than  was  pos- 
sible before,  two  Greek  words  —  rrjXe  {te/e,  afar)  and 
ypd^ecv  (^grapheifiy  to  write)  —  were  put  together,  and 
the  new  instrument  was  called  the  telegraph.  So  of  tele- 
phone, from  TY]\e  and  ^(juvr)  (^phon^,  sound). 

The  Romans  borrowed  their  scientific  terminology 
from  the  Greek  very  much  as  we  are  doing  to-day. 
The  older  terms  of  science  have  come  into  English 
through  the  Latin,  or  through  the  Latin  and  the 
French,  as  may  be  seen  by  looking  up  the  following 


30  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

words  in  any  unabridged  dictionary :  logic ^  machine ^ 
echo,  nucleicSy  anagram,  syllogism,  axiom,  optics,  theology, 
theologiie. 

The  names  of  most  sciences  are  from  the  Greek, — 
rhetoric,  from  pr^ropiKr]  (^rhetorike) ;  philosophy,  from 
(^iKoaoc^La  {philosophia)',  etymology,  from  ervfJuoKoyla 
(etiimologia).  In  fact,  the  technical  vocabulary  of  sci- 
ence is  almost  entirely  taken  from  the  Greek,  as  may  be 
seen  by  looking  up  in  any  dictionary  the  derivation  of 
such  scientific  terms  as  the  following  :  — 


Biology 

Diphtheria 

Hydrostatics 

Arithmetic 

Rheumatism 

Hydraulics 

Biography 

Politics 

Asteroid 

Geometry 

Orthography 

Horizon 

Anatomy 

Phrenology 

Parallel 

Geography 

Physiology 

Parabola 

Bronchitis 

Dynamics 

Hyperbola 

IL  The  Norse  or  Scandinavian  Element,  comprising 
the  names  of  towns  ending  in  by  (the  Danish  word  for 
village);  as  Ashby,  Rtcgby,  Whitby,  and  a  few  other 
words ;  as  screech,  grime,  bow  (of  a  ship),  ransack. 
Probably  most  of  the  Scandinavian  words  found  in 
English  were  introduced  through  the  Danish  invasion, 
though  they  do  not  appear  in  literature  until  after  the 
Norman  Conquest. 

III.  The  Celtic  Element,  including  a  few  words  taken 
from  the  language  of  the  ancient  Britons,  and  some 
which  have  come  into  our  speech  from  the  Welsh,  Irish, 
or  Scotch.  Basket,  glen,  lad,  were  probably  adopted 
early  in  English  history.  Brogue,  clan,  whisky,  are  of 
more  recent  adoption. 

IV.  The  Miscellaneous  Element,  including  all  words 
borrowed  from  other  languages,  or  in  other  ways  than 


ENGLISH   WORDS.  3 1 

those  mentioned  above,  through  the  commercial,  social, 
and  literary  contact  of  English-speaking  people  with 
other  nations  of  the  world. 

Ex.   From  the  Spanish.  —  Galleon,  armadillo,  lasso,  ranch. 
From  the  Dutch.  —  Yacht,  sloop,  ballast,  boom,  reef. 
From  the  Italian.  —  Bust,  cartoon,  ruffian,  bravado - 
From  the  American  Indian.  —  Potato,  tobacco,  wigwam. 
From  the  Arabic.  —  Alchemy,  algebra,  alembic,  jasper. 
From  the  French.  —  Soiree,  ddp6t,  prestige. 
From  the  Language  of  Ceylon.  —  Mango. 
From  the  Hindoo.  —  Bandanna,  punch,  toddy. 
From  the  Polynesian.  —  Taboo. 
From  the  Malay.  —  Bamboo. 

Apply  Knowledge   of   Other   Languages.  —  It   is   not 

intended  to  give  the  pupil  lists  of  prefixes  and  termi- 
nations to  be  committed  to  memory :  for  he  will  soon 
learn  by  observation  that  -er  and  -or  denote  the  actor 
(^painter,  one  who  paints);  that  a-  or  ab-  tuqzhs  from ; 
ad-,  to  ;  con-y  together ;  anti-,  against ;  and  aitte-,  before ; 
and  that  tin-  and  in-  mean  not.  We  shall  not  even  ask 
the  pupil  to  memorize  the  principal  foreign  roots  that 
have  become  parts  of  English  words.  No  instruction 
in  foreign  languages  will  be  undertaken  here. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  the  relation 
between  English  and  foreign  languages,  and  to  explain 
the  advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  other  languages  in 
investigating  the  origin  and  history  of  English  words. 
The  student  is  urged  to  apply  all  that  he  knows  of  other 
languages,  especially  Latin,  French,  and  Greek,  in  study- 
ing the  derivation  and  definition  of  English  words. 


32  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

As  has  already  been  stated  in  this  chapter,  etymology, 
when  scientifically  pursued,  necessitates  some  knowl- 
edge of  all*  Aryan  languages.  When  told  this,  many 
pupils  will  be  apt  to  conclude  that  the  study  of  ety- 
mology is  beyond  their  power,,  at  least  while  they  are 
in  school.  But  even  in  school  work,  etymology  can 
be  made  very  useful,  if  the  scholar  can  only  be  trained 
to  look  carefully  into  the  formation  of  words,  to  divide 
them  into  their  component  parts,  separating  the  termi- 
nations and  prefixes  from  the  stem,  or  root,  on  which 
the  word  is  built,  and  from  the  meaning  of  the  parts 
derive  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

The  extent  to  which  the  analysis  of  English  words 
can  be  carried  depends  upon  the  knowledge  which  the 
student  possesses  of  those  languages  from  which  Eng- 
lish words  have  been  derived.  However,  everything 
that  the  student  knows  about  the  derivation  and  history 
of  a  word  will  help  him  to  appreciate  the  meaning  of 
that  word  when  it  is  used  by  others,  and  to  use  it  more 
intelligently  himself. 

Interesting  Derivations.  —  Often  a  flood  of  light  is 
let  in  upon  the  meaning  of  a  word  by  the  knowledge 
of  a  very  simple  fact  with  regard  to  its  history.  For 
instance,  how  much  vividness  is  added  to  the  meaning 
of  the  noun  caprice ^  or  the  adjective  capricious ^  when 
we  notice  their  derivation  from  the  Latin  capra  (a  goat). 
Possibly  the  derivation  by  itself  will  not  give  a  clear 
definition  of  the  adjective  urbane ;  but  when  told  that 
it  refers  to  manners,  we  need  only  know  that  it  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  urbs  (a  city).  A  polite  man  is 
one  who  has  had  the  roughness  of  his  nature  made 
smooth  and  agreeable  to  others,  as  is  seen  from  its 
original  politus,  the  past  participle  of  the  Latin  verb 


ENGLISH    WORDS.  33 

polire  (to  polish).     Archbishop  Trench  says  in  his  lec- 
tures on  the  study  of  words  :  — 

"  Let  me  illustrate  my  meaning  more  at  length  by  the  word 
'tribulation.'  We  all  know  in  a  general  way  that  this  word, 
which  occurs  not  seldom,  in  Scripture  and  in  the  Liturgy, 
means  affliction,  sorrow,  anguish ;  but  it  is  quite  worth  our 
while  to  know  how  it  means  this,  and  to  question  *  tribulation ' 
a  little  closer.  It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  *  tribulum^  which 
was  the  threshing  instrument  or  harrow,  whereby  the  Roman 
husbandman  separated  the  corn  from  the  husks ;  and  *  tribu- 
latio '  in  its  primary  signification  was  the  act  of  this  separation. 
But  some  Latin  writer  of  the  Christian  Church  appropriated 
the  word  and  image  for  the  setting  forth  of  a  higher  truth ; 
and  sorrow,  distress,  and  adversity  being  the  appointed  means 
for  the  separating  in  men  of  whatever  in  them  was  light, 
trivial,  and  poor  from  the  solid  and  the  true,  their  chaff  from 
their  wheat,  he  therefore  called  these  sorrows  and  trials  *  tribu- 
lations,' threshings,  that  is,  of  the  inner  spiritual  man,  without 
which  there  could  be  no  fitting  him  for  the  heavenly  garner. 

" '  Rivals '  properly  are  those  who  dwell  on  the  banks  of  the 
same  river.  But  as  all  experience  shows,  there  is  no  such 
fruitful  source  of  contention  as  a  water  right,  and  these  would 
be  often  at  strife  with  one  another  in  regard  of  the  periods 
during  which  they  severally  had  a  right  to  the  use  of  the 
stream,  turning  it  off  into  their  own  fields  before  the  time,  or 
leaving  open  the  sluices  beyond  the  time,  or  in  other  ways 
interfering,  or  being  counted  to  interfere,  with  the  rights  of 
their  neighbors.  And  in  this  way  '  rivals  '  came  to  be  applied 
to  any  who  were  on  any  grounds  in  unfriendly  competition 
with  one  another." 

With  these  illustrations  in  mind,  it  is  hoped  that  the 
student  will  find  a  new  interest  in  tracing  the  derivation 
of  words. 

SCH.  ENG — 3 


34 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


EXERCISES  IN   DERIVATIONS. 


Look  up  the  following  words  in  the  dictionary,  and  explain 
their  present  meaning  in  the  light  of  their  derivation  :  — 


Investigation 

Simple 

Complex 

Cynosure 

Duplicity 

Compound 

Refection 

Ferry 

Transport 

Restaurant 

Chivalry 

Utopia 

Culture 

Auction 

Victuals 

Rejoice 

Sinecure 

Passion 

Current 

Magnify 

Traitor 

Tandem 

Microscope 

Soprano 

Translation 

Ranch 

Laconic 

Window 

Civilize 

Tantalize 

Libertine 

Suavity 

SUMMARY. 

Welcome 

From  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  seen  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  English  words  can  be  gained  — 

1 .  By  constant  reading  of  the  best  English  authors. 

2.  By  the  use  of  the  dictionary. 

3.  By  the  study  of  etymology  and  those  languages  from 
which  English  words  have  been  derived. 

We  now  proceed  to  a  classification  of  the  errors  made 
in  the  use  of  words,  with  a  view  to  avoiding  these  errors 
in  our  own  writing. 


CHAPTER   II. 
CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  WORDS. 

Requirements  of  Good  Diction.  —  Diction  treats  of  the 
choice  and  use  of  words. 

The  requirements  of  good  diction  have  been  summed 
up  under  three  heads,  known  as  ptirity,  propriety,  and 
precision.  These  terms  are  not  used  to  cover  the  same 
ground  by  all  writers  on  rhetoric.  But,  when  confined 
to  the  subject  of  English  diction,  we  may  say :  — 

Purity  requires  every  zvord  used  to  be  good  English. 
Propriety  requires  the  selection  of  a  word  that  will  express 
the  meaning  intended.  Precision  requires  the  writer  to 
select,  from  those  words  which  in  a  measure  express  the 
intended  meaning,  the  one  which  best  expresses  that 
meaning. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  words  will  be  treated  as  violations 
of  these  three  requisites. 

PURITY. 

Different  Opinions.  —  Some  authorities  maintain  that, 
without  reference  to  origin  or  former  usage,  it  is  per- 
missible to  use  any  word  that  an  intelligent  reader  or 
listener  will  understand ;  and  that,  if  a  writer  can  coin 
a  new  word  that  will  convey  his  meaning  better  than  any 
wcid  already  in  use,  he  is  doing  good  service  to  the  lan- 
guage by  using  one  of  his  own  coining.     Those  writers 

35 


36  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

who  are  known  as  purists  would  exclude  from  English 
composition  all  words  distinctly  foreign,  and  all  those 
not  used  by  a  majority  of  the  best  authors. 

A  Distinction  to  be  made.  —  It  is  extremely  difficult 
to  formulate  general  rules  in  regard  to  purity  of  dic- 
tion ;  for  the  same  rule  will  not  apply  to  all  classes  of 
writers.  We  must  make  a  distinction  between  writers 
whose  usage  would  add  to  the  authority  for  a  word, 
and  writers  whose  usage  would  have  no  weight.  The 
great  masters  of  English  literature  have  borrowed  many 
words  from  other  languages,  and  coined  others  to  meet 
the  needs  of  their  thought.  These  innovations  have 
been  adopted  by  later  writers,  and  have  become  good 
English.  In  this  way  the  language  has  grown,  and 
developed  its  present  rich  vocabulary.  To  forbid  and 
effectually  prevent  this  coining  and  borrowing,  would 
be  to  check  the  growth  of  the  language ;  and  this  would 
be  undesirable,  even  if  it  were  possible. 

Safest  Rule.  —  Genius  is  not  to  be  bound  by  rules  of 
rhetoric  ;  but  an  attempt  to  coin  or  borrow  words,  on  the 
part  of  one  whose  genius  has  not  been  acknowledged 
by  others,  must  be  considered  unwise  and  presumptuous. 
Therefore  the  safest  rule  for  the  vast  majority  of  writers, 
certainly  for  those  still  at  school,  is  to  use  only  those 
words  that  are  in  use  by  standard  authors. 

Information  in  Dictionaries.  —To  determine,  from  liter- 
ature, whether  a  word  is  or  is  not  in  use  by  standard 
authors,  would  involve  a  vast  amount  of  reading.  There- 
fore questions  in  regard  to  the  standing  of  words  can 
best  be  settled  by  reference  to  a  large  dictionary,  such 
as  the  "  Century  Dictionary,"  Webster's  *'  International 
Dictionary,"  and  Worcester's  *'  Unabridged  Diction- 
ary." 


CORRECTION  OF   ERRORS   IN  USE  OF   WORDS.         37 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  work  of 
compiling  or  revising  these  dictionaries  is  to  give 
accurate  and  the  latest  information  with  reference  to  the 
standing  of  words.  If  a  word  is  not  in  the  dictionary,  we 
may  safely  conclude  that  it  is  not  good  English.  If  it  is 
there,  but  printed  in  Italics,  or  with  two  bars  before  it, 
as  in  the  '^  International  Dictionary,"  it  is  from  a  foreign 
language,  and  not  yet  domesticated.  If  not  in  Italics,  or 
otherwise  marked  as  foreign,  and  not  followed  by  any 
note  with  reference  to  its  use,  it  is  in  good  usage.  Words 
about  whose  standing  there  is  some  question  are  followed 
by  a  note  indicating  the  objection  to  their  use. 

Look  up  the  following  words  in  the  *'  International 
Dictionary,"  and  notice  after  each  word  the  remarks 
referring  to  its  use  :  — 


Agriculturalist 

Compulsatory 

Indecided 

Alumnus 

Cortege 

-Mugwump 

Authoress 

Darky 

Preventative 

Bogus 

Dude 

Talented 

Taste  in  the  Choice  of  Words.  —  Literary  critics  and 
writers  on  rhetoric  often  give  lists  of  words  which  they 
condemn ;  and  later  writers  have  followed  or  copied  the 
original  lists  without  ascertaining  whether  or  not,  in  the 
time  intervening,  the  language  has  adopted  any  of  these 
words.  Because  Mr.  Bryant  thirty-five  or  forty  years 
ago  would  not  allow  certain  words  to  be  used  in  the 
**  Evening  Post,"  it  does  not  follow  that  none  of  these 
are  in  good  standing  to-day. 

It  may,  however,  be  better  to  use  one  of  two  words, 
and  yet  not  incorrect  to  use  the  other.  In  writing,  as 
in  all  other  work,  the  success  attained  and  the  pleasure 
given  depend  largely  on  the  exercise  of  taste.  Taste  in 
the  use  of  language  cannot  be  acquired  by  learning 


38  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

rules  and  lists  of  words,  but  only  through  acquaintance 
with  the  writings  of  those  whose  taste  is  worthy  to  be 
followed.  In  order,  however,  to  guard  against  errors, 
the  strictest  rule  is  the  safest  rule  for  those  whose  youth 
and  opportunities  have  prevented  them  from  securing  a 
wide  acquaintance  with  English  literature. 

Rule.  —  Purity  requires  the  selection  of  such  words 
as  are  used  by  the  best  English  authors  of  the  prese?it 
age. 

Application  to  School  English.  —  Though  the  use  of 
foreign  words  is  the  most  flagrant  and  annoying  fault 
of  many  literary  men,  especially  those  who  contribute 
to  our  magazines,  i.t  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  school- 
boys very  seldom  introduce  foreign  words  into  their 
writing.  Schoolgirls  who  have  a  slight  knowledge  of 
French,  especially  those  who  have  spent  a  year  or  two 
abroad,  often  make  a  bad  mixture  of  their  French  and 
English.  This  fault  is  not  due  to  ignorance,  but  is 
generally  made  with  conscious  effort.  The  direction, 
then,  to  use  no  foreign  words  is  sufficient  without  any 
accompanying  examples. 

The  rule  for  purity  is  also  violated  by  the  use  of  obso- 
lete words  or  by  the  use  of  newly  coined  words  ;  but  there 
is  scarcely  any  danger  of  its  being  violated  in  this  way 
by  those  who  study  this  book.  The  warning  most  neces- 
sary here  is  against  the  use  of  vulgarisms  and  slang,  or 
words  that  in  one  way  or  another  have  come  into  the  con- 
versation of  various  classes  of  people,  but  are  not  found 
in  the  writings  of  standard  authors. 

Slang.  —  Unfortunately,  slang  is  much  used  in  the 
American  newspapers,  and  this  fact  accounts  for  the 
confusion  between  good  and  bad  English  in  the  vocabu- 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN  USE  OF  WORDS.         39 

laries  of  those  whose  chief  reading  is  from  the  daily 
newspapers. 

Slang  is  often  in  place,  and  is  frequently  used  by 
good  writers,  to  the  entertainment  of  the  readers ;  but 
such  matter  is  generally  put  into  the  mouth  of  a  char- 
acter not  supposed  to  be  speaking  good  English.  It  is 
dangerous  for  an  author  to  resort  to  slang  in  any  writ- 
ing that  is  to  be  taken  for  his  own  speech  and  thought. 

PROPRIETY. 

Rule.  —  Propriety  requires  the  selection  of  a  word  that 
will  express  the  intended  meaning. 

Improprieties.  —  A  violation  of  this  rule  is  called  an 
impropriety^  and  consists  in  using  a  word  in  a  sense  not 
given  it  by  good  writers.  Mistakes  of  this  sort  are  the 
inevitable  result  of  lack  of  education.  Words  are  edged 
tools ;  and  it  requires  an  apprenticeship  to  be  able  to 
handle  them  without  cutting  one's  self.  The  most 
pitiable  mistakes  of  uneducated  preachers  and  other 
public  speakers  are  in  propriety.  Often,  in  the  midst 
of  a  lofty  period,  a  word  used  in  an  improper  sense 
renders  the  sentence  ridiculous. 

The  rule  for  propriety  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  confusing  words  which  resemble  each  other 
in  appearance  or  sound. 

Violation. — The  room  was  luxuriantly  furnished. 
Correction.  —  The  room  was  luxuriously  furnished. 

(3)  By  confusing  words  which  resemble  each  other 
in  sense  or  meaning. 

Violation.  —  Franklin  invented  electricity. 
Correction.  —  Franklin  discovered  electricity. 


40  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

Violation.  —  I  expect  you  were  wet  through  in  the  storm  this 
morning. 

Correction.  —  I  suppose  you  were  wet  through  in  the  storm  this 
morning. 

Note.  —  Prepositions  are  used  to  connect  words  and  to  show 
the  relations  between  them.  Though  in  many  instances  different 
prepositions  may  be  used  interchangeably  without  materially  alter- 
ing the  sense,  mistakes  are  often  made  through  failure  to  appreciate 
the  real  signification  of  prepositions.  For  example,  to  is  used  after 
the  verb  compare  when  the  object  of  the  comparison  is  to  show  a  like- 
ness ;  but  when  the  object  is  to  find  the  relative  merits  or  to  show 
contrast,  the  proper  preposition  is  with.  Thus  we  say  that  David 
compared  the  love  of  God  for  those  that  fear  him  to  the  pity  of  a 
father  for  his  children ;  but  we  say  that  one  plan  is  compared  with 
another,  or  that  the  thoughts  of  man  are  nothing  when  compared 
zf/M  those  of  God. 

Words  often  confused.  —  It  will  repay  the  pupil  to 
notice  carefully,  using  the  dictionary  if  necessary,  the 
meaning  of  each  word  in  the  following  groups  of  words 
resembling  each  other  in  sound  and  appearance.  By  so 
doing  he  may  avoid  certain  deplorable  errors,  which 
through  carelessness  or  ignorance  are  frequently  made 
in  the  conversation  and  writing  of  schoolboys  :  lie  {lay^ 
laift)y  lay  {laid,  laid))  sit,  set;  aught,  naiigJit ;  good  {adj.), 
well  {adv.)',  respectfully,  respectively ;  fly  {flew,  flown), 
flee  {fled,  fled),  flow  {flowed,  flowed)',  affect,  effect; 
alhide,  illude,  elude;  deadly,  deathly;  except,  accept; 
counsel,  council,  consul;  statue,  statute  ;  pillow,  pillar. 

Any  two  words  resembling  each  other  are  likely  to  be 
confused  by  uneducated  people.  The  following  examples 
contain  some  errors  so  absurd  that  they  can  hardly  be 
classified  as  violations  of  any  rhetorical  principle.  As 
these  errors  have  occurred  under  the  observation  of  the 
author,  they  are  given  to  show  the  danger  of  using  words 
without  accurate  knowledge  of  their  meaning. 


CORRECTION   OF   ERRORS   IN   USE  OF   WORDS.         4 1 
EXAMPLES. 

1.  The  observance  of  this  fact  saved  them  from  accident. 

2.  He  feared  the  men  would  get  into  an  alteration  over  tne 
question. 

3.  He  gave  pacific  directions. 

4.  He  surrounded  the  calvary  and  alluded  his  pursuers. 

5.  The  cup  was  filled  to  completion. 

6.  His  appliance  for  the  position  was  refused. 

7.  He  excepted  the  invitation. 

8.  The  number  of  electors  is  proscribed  by  law. 

9.  How  will  the  election  effect  prices  ? 

10.  She  was  a  very  illiteral  woman,  and  made  many  mistakes 
in  the  use  of  words. 

PRECISION. 

Rule.  —  Precision  requires  that  we  select^  from  those 
words  which  in  a  measure  express  the  intended  meanings 
the  word  which  exactly  expresses  that  meaning. 

Synonyms.  —  In  every  language  there  are  a  number 
of  words  of  very  nearly  the  same  significance.  These 
words  are  known  as  synonyms,  a  name  taken  from  the 
Greek.  De  Quincey  says,  '*  All  languages  tend  to  clear 
themselves  of  synonyms  as  intellectual  culture  advances, 
the  superfluous  words  being  taken  up  and  appropriated 
by  new  shades  and  combinations  of  thought  evolved 
in  the  progress  of  society."  Thus  we  find  that  there 
is  often  a  very  fine  distinction  to  be  made  in  the  choice 
of  words. 

Derivation.  —  Precision  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
prae-cidere  (to  cut  off).  The  derivative  significance  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  the  right  word  cuts  off  what  we 
do  not  wish  to  express.     There  is  generally,  among  the 


42  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

synonyms  afforded  by  the  language,  a  word  that  will 
express  our  meaning  more  nearly  than  any  other  word 
will  express  it.  Precision  requires  that  we  find  that 
word. 

Violations  of  Precision.  —  Mistakes  in  propriety  are 
caused  by  gross  ignorance.  Precision  is  more  difficult 
of  attainment,  and  can  be  acquired  only  by  constant 
study  of  good  authors,  and  by  cultivating  the  power  of 
criticising  one's  own  use  of  language.  If  a  person 
always  uses  exactly  the  right  word  in  the  right  place, 
we  say  he  has  a  command  of  language. 

The  rule  for  precision  is  violated  by  using  a  word 
which  fails  to  express  our  meaning  as  well  as  some 
synonym  of  that  word  would  express  it. 

Violation.  —  He  is  a  very  smart  man. 
Correction.  —  He  is  a  very  clever  man. 

Note.  —  Smart  may  refer  to  clothes,  but  clever  excludes  all  but 
the  quality  to  be  expressed. 

Violation.  —  Mr,  Moody  is  a  very  peculiar  man. 
Correction.  —  Mr.  Moody  is  a  very  remarkable  man. 

Note.  —  If  we  wish  to  express  eccentricity  of  appearance  or 
character,  peculiar  is  the  better  word  to  use ;  but  to  indicate  the 
possession  of  wonderful  gifts,  remarkable  is  better. 

Distinguish  between  the  meanings  of  the  sentences 
in  each  of  the  following  groups  :  — 

1.  His  collection  of  the  British  Poets  was  entire. 
His  collection  of  the  British  Poets  was  complete. 
His  collection  of  the  British  Poets  was  whole. 

2.  She  wore  a  very  quaint  dress. 
She  wore  a  very  peculiar  dress. 
She  wore  a  very  remarkable  dress. 
She  wore  a  very  extraordinary  dress. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  USE  OF  WORDS.         43 

3.  He  was  preparing  for  the  contest  with  his  enemy. 
He  was  preparing  for  the  contest  with  his  opponent. 
He  was  preparing  for  the  contest  with  his  adversary. 
He  was  preparing  for  the  contest  with  his  antagonist. 

4.  The  house  has  been  empty  for  a  year. 
The  house  has  been  vacant  for  a  year. 
The  house  has  been  unoccupied  for  a  year. 
The  house  has  been  uninhabited  for  a  year. 

5.  He  made  an  equitable  distribution  of  his  estate. 
He  made  an  equable  distribution  of  his  estate. 

Words  originally  of  One  Meaning.  —  The  English 
language  has  in  its  vocabulary  words  from  the  Latin 
and  words  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  which  originally  de- 
noted the  same  idea ;  but  words  are  too  scarce  to 
allow  two  to  do  the  work  assigned  for  one,  and  time 
has  gradually  brought  about  distinct  uses  for  each. 
No  matter  how  nearly  alike  the  definitions  of  two 
words  may  be,  there  will  always  be  found  cases  where 
one  word  will  not  perfectly  replace  the  other.  The 
differentiation  is  very  evident  in  the  words  corpse  and 
body.  Though  the  Latin  corpus  once  had  the  same 
extent  of  meaning  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  word,  at  present 
corpse  cannot  be  used  with  reference  to  anything  but 
a  dead  body.  In  the  following  extract  from  Scott's 
"  Ivanhoe,"  the  words  swine  and  pork^  ox  and  beef^ 
calf  and  veal^  are  given  as  illustrations  of  this  prin- 
ciple.    Sheep  and  mutton  might  also  have  been  added. 

[from  "ivanhoe,"  chapter  I.] 

"  Why,  how  call  you  those  grunting  brutes  running  about  on 
their  four  legs  ?  "  demanded  Wamba. 

"Swine,  fool,  swine,"  said  the  herd;  "every  fool  knows 
that." 


44  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

"And  swine  is  good  Saxon,"  said  the  jester;  "but  how  call 
you  the  sow  when  she  is  flayed,  and  drawn  and  quartered,  and 
iiung  up  by  the  heels  like  a  traitor?  " 

"  Pork,"  answered  the  swineherd. 

"  I  am  very  glad  every  fool  knows  that,  too,"  said  Wamba ; 
"and  pork,  I  think,  is  good  Norman- French  :  and  so  when 
the  brute  lives,  and  is  in  the  charge  of  a  Saxon  slave,  she  goes 
by  her  Saxon  name,  but  becomes  a  Norman,  and  is  called 
Pork,  when  she  is  carried  to  the  castle  hall  to  feast  among  the 
nobles.     What  dost  thou  think  of  this,  friend  Gurth,  ha?" 

"  It  is  but  too  true  doctrine,  friend  Wamba,  however  it  got 
into  thy  fool's  pate." 

"  Nay,  I  can  tell  you  more,"  said  Wamba  in  the  same  tone. 
'•'There  is  old  Alderman  Ox  continues  to  hold  his  Saxon 
epithet  while  he  is  under  the  charge  of  serfs  and  bondsmen 
such  as  thou,  but  becomes  Beef,  a  fiery  French  gallant,  when 
he  arrives  before  the  worshipful  jaws  that  are  destined  to  con- 
sume him.  Mynheer  Calf,  too,  becomes  Monsieur  de  Veau  in 
the  like  manner :  he  is  Saxon  when  he  requires  tendance,  and 
takes  a  Norman  name  when  he  becomes  matter  of  enjoyment." 

Words  of  nearly  the  Same  Meaning.  —  The  word  far 
has  two  comparatives,  farther  and  further.  However, 
they  are  not  absolutely  interchangeable.  Farther  is  now 
confined  to  denote  greater  extent  of  space,  whilo,  further 
applies  more  properly  to  cases  where  the  idea  of  space 
is  less  evident  or  figurative.  We  say,  "Two  miles 
farther M^  the  road,"  but  "He  prolonged  the  discussion 
further  than  I  had  intended." 

Perhaps  the  words  boy  and  lad  are  as  nearly  alike  in 
meaning  as  any  other  two  English  words  (excepting,  of 
course,  such  pairs  of  words  as  unf^equent  and  infre- 
quent, which  are  absolutely  identical  in  meaning) ;  but 
we  do  not  speak  of  a  lad  baby,  though,  by  substituting 


CORRECTION   OF   ERRORS   IN  USE  OF  WORDS.         45 

boy  for  lad  in  this  phrase,  it  is  well  understood.  In  a 
trial  in  Brooklyn,  the  lawyer  asked  the  witness  why  he 
admitted  that  he  was  sure  of  a  given  matter,  and  yet 
refused  to  say  that  he  was  certain.  The  witness  replied, 
"  I  am  sure  the  sun  will  rise  to-morrow,  I  am  certain  it 
rose  this  morning  "  ;  thus  illustrating  a  fine  but  actual 
distinction  between  the  two  words. 

May  and  Can,  Shall  and  Will,  etc.  —  The  rule  for 
precision  is  often  violated  by  failure  to  make  the  proper 
distinction  between  the  meanings  of  the  auxiliaries,  may 
and  ca7i,  shall  and  will^  would  and  should.  May  implies 
permission  or  probability.  /  may  go  means  either  / 
have  permission  to  go,  or  There  is  a  chance  of  my  going. 
Can  implies  ability  or  power.  /  ca7i  read  means  /  am 
able  to  read.  He  may  read  means  He  has  permission  to 
read.  May  I  leave  the  room  f  is  equivalent  to  Have  I 
permission  to  leave  the  room  ?  He  may  do  as  he  wishes 
implies  that  no  one  will  object.  He  can  do  as  he  pleases 
implies  that  he  has  the  power  to  do  so. 

Shall  and  will  are  stumbling  blocks  to  many  writers, 
and  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  the  distinction 
between  the  meaning  of  these  words.  To  denote  sim- 
ple futurity  without  implying  any  compelling  force,  the 
first  person  takes  the  auxiliary  shall ;  the  second  and 
third  persons,  the  auxiliary  zvill. 

Ex.    I  shall  be  happy.  We  shall  be  happy. 

You  will  be  happy.  You  will  be  happy. 

He  will  be  happy.  They  will  be  happy. 

In  questions,  however,  the  proper  auxiliary  in  the 
second  perscn  is  shall ;  as.  Shall  yon  go  to-morrow  f 

The  forms  given  just  above  are  examples  of  the  sim- 
ple future  statement.     If  we  wisb  to  add  the  idea  of  a 


46  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


compelling  force,  or  of  determination  or  obligation,  the 
proper  auxiliary  for  the  first  person  is  will ;  for  the  seo 
ond  and  third  persons,  shall. 


1 


.   I  will  go 

means 

I  am  determined  to  go. 

You  shall  go 

ii 

You  must  go. 

He  shall  go 

i( 

He  must  go. 

We  will  go 

ii 

We  are  determined  to  go. 

You  shall  go 

a 

You  must  go. 

They  shall  go 

a 

They  must  go. 

/  shall  have  satisfactio7i  means  that  the  satisfaction 
will  come  in  the  course  of  time. 

/  will  have  satisfaction  means  /  am  determined  to 
have  it. 

The  Ten  Commandments  illustrate  the  force  of  shall 
in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

Ex.   Thou  shalt  not  kill,  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

.The  command  is  changed  to  a  simple  future  state- 
ment, when  we  substitute  wilt  for  shalt ;  as.  Thou  wilt 
not  kill,  Thou  wilt  not  steal. 

The  simple  forms  of  the  conditional  mood  have  should 
for  all  persons.  If  I  should  go,  If  he  should  go,  If  we 
should  go,  If  they  should  go,  are  simple  conditional  state- 
ments. When  the  idea  of  willingness  is  also  included, 
the  proper  auxiliary  is  would.  If  I  would  go.  If  he  would 
go,  If  they  would  go,  mean.  If  I  should  be  willing  to  go. 
If  he  should  be  willing  to  go,  etc. 

Distinguish  between  the  sentences  in  each  of  these 

pairs :  — 

I  shall  come. 
I  will  come. 

You  may  use  this  machine. 
You  can  use  this  machine. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN  USE  OF   WORDS.         47 

He  shall  not  leave  until  he  apologizes. 
He  will  not  leave  until  he  apologizes. 

I  shall  be  there  to  introduce  you. 
I  will  be  there  to  introduce  you. 

If  they  should  come,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  carrying  this 
through. 

If  they  would  come,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  carrying  this 
through. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

Correct  the  errors  in  precision  in  the  following  sentences  by 
substituting  synonyms  which  will  more  exactly  express  the 
intended  meaning :  — 

1.  I  am  going  to  take  up  medicine  for  a  business. 

2.  In  what  portion  of  the  town  does  he  live? 

3.  Were  your  instructions  oral,  or  written? 

4.  I  will  try  to  tell  you  shortly  (meaning,  in  few  words). 

5.  I  avow  my  guilt  in  this  matter. 

6.  There  was  an  insurmountable  difficulty  in  the  way. 

7.  For  sale,  —  A  whole  set  of  the  Aldine  edition  of  English 
Poets. 

8.  Children  seldom  have  sufficient  food. 

9.  We  should  allow  enough  time  for  our  plans  to  mature. 

10.  The  prisoner  has  abandoned  his  wife  and  children. 

11.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  abdicated  his  office. 

12.  Will  you  show  me  this  example  in  algebra ? 

13.  He  was  obliged  to  select  one  of  three  party  com- 
manders. 

14.  I  instinctively  avoid  any  such  public  attention. 

15.  The  army  deserted  the  position  at  daybreak. 

16.  (In  a  debate)  I  suppose  that  my  enemies  will  insist  on 
further  proof  of  this. 

17.  I  seldom  found  him  indolent;  he  was  not  of  an  idle 
disposition. 


48  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

1 8.  After  a  long  argument,  I  at  last  persuaded  him  that  he 
had  been  mistaken. 

19.  The  chandelier  should  be  hung  from  the  middle  of  the 
ceiling. 

20.  The  sanatory  regulations  were  disregarded  by  the  major- 
ity of  householders. 

21.  He  is  a  perfect  brute  in  his  manners,  and  a  beast  in  his 
treatment  of  his  children. 

22.  The  railroad  train  was  moving  along  at  a  very  rapid 
gait. 

23.  Will  I  be  contented  when  I  get  this  done? 

24.  If  this  would  be  found,  it  would  be  all  right. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES   OF   ERRORS   IN   THE   USE   OF 
WORDS. 

Correct  the  errors  ^  in  diction  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
explain  what  requirement  is  violated  by  each  :  — 

1.  He  was  a  minister  in  the  Episcopalian  church. 

2.  My  husband  is  very  much  dictated  to  drink. 

3.  There  was  a  great  quantity  of  people  there. 

4.  It  seems  to  me  there  was  a  good  deal  of  bunkum  in  his 
speech. 

5.  He  deeded  the  property  to  his  wife. 

6.  The  brutalness  of  this  action  was  beyond  human  con- 
ception. 

7.  I  expect  there  has  been  some  underhand  work  there. 

8.  He  was  ketcher^  on  the  base-ball  nine. 

9.  Her  daughter's  health  was  not  in  the  least  delicate,  but 
she  was  really  very  indelicate. 

10.   Three  boys  in  the  graduating  class  were  demoted  to  the 
lower  form. 

1  If  the  error  in  any  sentence  is  not  readily  detected,  the  student  should 
consult  the  dictionary  for  the  meaning  of  the  words  not  familiar  to  him. 

2  Not  often  written,  but  often  spoken. 


CORRECTION   OF   ERRORS   IN   USE   OF   WORDS.         49 

11.  When  asked  to  describe  his  symptoms,  he  replied  that 
he  had  a  very  funny  pain  in  his  side. 

12.  He  is  an  extremely  exceptable  preacher. 

13.  He  stood  at  the  end  ^  of  his  class. 

14.  Mr.  Brown  is  a  most  impractical  man. 

15.  The  journey  was  found  to  be  unpracticable. 

16.  I  found  him  very  social  in  his  disposition. 

17.  Their  method  of  attack  was  most  unjudicious. 

18.  He  wrote  an  essay  on  the  counsels  of  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

19.  His  opponent  stood  at  twenty  paces  from  him  with 
revolver  drawn  and  loaded. 

20.  The  sermon  concluded  with  an  example  from  actual  life 
of  the  way  in  which  God  cares  for  man's  happiness. 

2 1 .  Othello  then  stifles  his  wife  with  a  pillow. 

22.  Let  us  take  an  hypothecated  case. 

23.  Neither  one  or  the  other  will  suit  me. 

24.  At  that  point  another  engine  was  telegraphed  for,  and 
further  up  the  road  the  train  was  divided  into  two  sections,  and 
in  that  way  reached  New  York. 

25.  They  heartlessly  discarded  the  feehngs  of  all  most  deeply 
concerned. 

26.  The  swimmer  was  attacked  with  cramps,  lost  conscience, 
and  sank  in  a  few  seconds. 

27.  Though  dehcate  in  health,  she  accompHshes  more 
than  stronger  girls,  for  she  is  a  great  preservative  of  her 
energies. 

28.  He  was  thankful,  though  it  only  gave  an  instant  relief. 
The  pain  began  anew  in  a  few  seconds. 

29.  I  was  disappointed  at  the  way  the  new  preacher  con- 
ducted the  morning  service.  His  prayers  showed  great  lack  of 
spiritualism. 


1  If  any  word  is  less  exact  in  expressing  the  intended  meaning  than 
another  word  would  be,  there  is  an  error  in  precision. 
SCH.  ENG. — 4 


CHAPTER   III. 
CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

Rhetoric  and  Grammar.  —  Grammar  treats  of  the 
arrangement  and  construction  of  words  in  a  sentence, 
and  the  changes  of  form  which  words  undergo  in  order 
to  show  their  construction.  Since  the  object  of  the 
study  of  rhetoric  is  to  enable  one  to  present  ideas  in 
such  language  that  they  may  be  apprehended  with  the 
least  possible  effort,  rhetoric  of  course  requires  that 
our  ideas  be  expressed  with  grammatical  correctness. 

Solecisms.  —  Experience  shows  that  mistakes  in  gram- 
mar occur  even  in  the  writings  of  those  who  have 
attained  excellence  of  style.  It  is  observed,  also,  that 
these  mistakes  are  usually  violations  of  the  same  few 
rules.  Writers  on  rhetoric,  therefore,  include  in  their 
works  a  chapter  reminding  the  student  of  certain  rules 
of  grammar  which  are  most  often  violated.  Gram- 
matical errors,  when  viewed  as  part  of  the  subject  of 
rhetoric,  are  called  solecisms^  a  word  derived  from  Soli^ 
a  city  in  Cilicia,  inhabited  by  Greek  colonists  who  spoke 
a  corrupt  dialect. 

Danger  in  Use  of  Long  Sentences.  —  A  most  valuable 
safeguard  against  errors  in  grammatical  construction  is 
to  be  found  in  the  habitual  use  of  short  sentences.  The 
long  sentence  is  especially  fatal  to  the  novice  in  the  art 
of  composition.  The  fair  promise  of  the  first  two  or 
three  lines  in  which  all  the  rules  of  grammar  have  due 
observance  is  seldom  sustained  to  the  end.     Without 

50 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION.  51 

the  slightest  provocation,  the  parts  of  speech  plunge 
into  confusion  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  syntax. 

Never  allow  the  length  of  a  sentence  to  help  it  become 
unmanageable.  With  this  end  in  view,  a  good  rule  to 
follow  in  revising  what  you  have  already  written,  is  to 
cut  every  long  sentence  into  two.  Absolute  correct- 
ness is  difficult  to  attain  even  with  this  safeguard.  As 
English  has  lost  almost  all  its  inflection,  and  as  gram- 
matical construction  is  determined  almost  exclusively 
by  the  order  of  the  words,  a  grammatical  slip  is  easy 
even  when  the  sentence  is  short. 

Twenty  Rules  of  Grammar.  —  The  following  twenty 
rules  of  grammar  are  frequently  violated.  Under  each 
rule  are  given  the  ways  in  which  that  rule  is  apt  to 
be  violated.  For  aid  in  memorizing,  it  may  be  noticed 
that  the  first  seven  rules  refer  to  nouns  or  pronouns; 
Nos.  8  to  II,  to  verbs;  Nos.  12  to  17,  to  adjectives  and 
adverbs;  No.  18,  to  prepositions;  No.  19,  to  connec- 
tives ;  and  No.  20,  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 

I.  Some  domesticated  foreign  words  retain  their  origi- 
nal plurals. 

This  rule  is  often  violated  by  using  plurals  in  s  for 
domesticated  foreign  words  which  retain  original  plurals. 

Violation.  —  Vertebras,  axises. 
Correction .  —  Vertebrae,  axes . 

The  following  is  a  list  of  foreign  words  which  retain 
original  plurals :  — 

(a)  From  the  Latin. 


Sin^rular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural, 

Axis, 

axes. 

Effluvium, 

effluvia. 

Basis, 

bases. 

Genius  (a  spirit). 

genii. 

Crisis, 

crises. 

Genus, 

genera. 

52 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


Singular. 
Maximum, 
Minimum, 
Nebula, 
Oasis, 


Plural. 
maxima, 
minima, 
nebulae, 
oases. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Stimulus, 

stimuli. 

Terminus, 

termini. 

Vertebra, 

vertebrae, 

(<5)  From  the  Greek. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Analysis,  analyses.  Parenthesis,  parentheses. 

Chrysalis,  chrysalides.  Phenomenon,  phenomena. 

Diaeresis,  diaereses.  Synthesis,  syntheses. 

Hypothesis,  hypotheses.  Thesis,  theses. 

Metamorphosis,  metamorphoses. 

Note.  —  The  plurals  of  these  words,  and  the  original  plurals  of 
domesticated  words  with  regular  plurals  in  s,  are  sometimes  incor- 
rectly used  for  the  singular  forms. 

Ex.  A  phenomena,  a  stamina,  a  genera,  for  a  phenomenon,  a  stamen, 
a  genus. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

There  were  several  genuses  discovered. 

He  found  a  vertebrae  of  a  whale. 

The  terminuses  of  the  road  were  not  at  central  points. 

This  desert  has  few  oasises. 

Their  thesises  were  not  on  the  same  subject. 

6.  Nebulas  are  cloudlike  in  appearance. 

7.  Every  man  has  many  crisises  in  his  life. 

8.  I  do  not  wish  to  argue  from  any  of  your  hypothesises. 

II.    The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 
This  rule  is  often  violated  — 

{a)  By  using  the  objective  case  of  the  subject  after 
verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  and  the  like. 

Violation.  —  Those  whom  he  fancied  would  be  his  friends  were 
his  bitterest  enemies. 

Correction.  —  Those  who  he  fancied  would  be  his  friends  were 
his  bitterest  enemies. 


CORRECTION  OF   ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION.  53 

{b)  By  using  the  objective  case  after  as  or  than  intro- 
ducing a  new  subject. 

Violation.  —  You  know  this  as  well  as  me. 
Correction.  —  You  know  this  as  well  as  I  (do). 

EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  He  is  taller  than  me. 

2.  He  is  not  one  whom  I  thought  would  do  this. 

3.  She  is  further  advanced  than  him. 

4.  I  have  found  a  man  whom  I  think  will  suit. 

5.  The  politicians  whom  he  said  would  support  the   bill 
failed  to  appear. 

6.  She  seemed  to  be  much  poorer  than  him. 

7.  Many  men  have  lived  to  see  the  folly  of  confiding  in 
whomever  would  receive  their  confidence. 

8.  They  can  afford  to  give  much  better  than  us. 

9.  Why  won't  mother  answer  as  well  as  me? 

10.  The  ladies  whom  I  feared  would  object  were  not 
there. 

III.  The  predicate  after  the  verb  to  be,  or  other  verb 
expressing  existence,  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  sub- 
ject. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

ia)  By  using  the  objective  case  of  the  predicate  after 
a  finite  verb. 

Violation.  —  He  thought  they  were  us. 
Correction.  —  He  thought  they  were  we. 

{b)  By  using  the  nominative  case  of  the  predicate 
after  the  infinitive  mood. 

Violation.  —  He  supposed  it  to  be  I. 
Correction.  —  He  supposed  it  to  be  me. 


54  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  It  surely  must  be  them. 

2.  I  had  supposed  that  it  was  us  whom  he  meant. 

3.  I  understood  it  was  her. 

4.  That  it  was  him,  no  one  doubted. 

5.  Do  you  beheve  that  to  be  he  ? 

6.  Here  they  come  !     Yes,  those  are  them. 

7.  Whom  do  you  think  I  am  ? 

8.  Who  did  she  understand  it  to  be,  that  had  the  matter  in 
charge  for  us  ? 

9.  Probably  it  will  be  me  that  he  will  call  next  time. 
10.    It  was  I  that  said  so,  not  her. 

IV.  The  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

ia)  By  using  the  nominative  case  of  an  object  pronoun 
connected  by  a  conjunction  to  a  noun. 

Violation.  —  Will  you  allow  James  and  I  to  study  together  ? 
Correction.  —  Will  you  allow  James  and  me  to  study  together  ? 

(h)  By  using  the  nominative  for  the  objective  of  a 
relative  governed  by  a  preposition  at  the  end  of  a 
clause. 

Violation.  —  Who  did  you  intend  this  for  ? 
Correction.  —  Whom  did  you  intend  this  for  ? 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  This  is  for  John  and  I  to  practice  on. 

2.  He  loved  both  you  and  I  alike. 

3.  Who  can  one  trust  in  ? 

4.  Who  did  you  mistake  him  for  ? 

5.  Nobody  was  allowed  inside  except  father  and  I. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN   CONSTRUCTION.  55 

6.  Every  one  but  she  received  something  from  the  com- 
mittee. 

7.  She  refused  to  let  Mary  and  I  go  with  the  others. 

8.  Whoever  this  may  be  for,  he  must  let  me  know  at  once. 

V.  All  notcns  in  the  singular^  and  nouns  in  the  plural 
not  ending  in  s,  form  the  possessive  by  adding  apostrophe 
and  s.  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  add  the  apostrophe 
alone.  Definite  pronouns  do  not  take  an  apostrophe  in 
the  possessive  case. 

Note.  —  Some  authorities  say  that  words  of  more  than  one  sylla- 
ble, and  ending  in  an  j  or  s"  sound,  may  omit  the  possessive  s  to 
avoid  repetition  of  hissing  letters.  Goodness,  conscience,  Jesus,  and 
a  few  other  proper  names,  always  form  the  possessive  singular  with 
the  apostrophe  only.  The  indefinite  pronouns  one,  other,  etc.,  take 
the  apostrophe  and  s. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

{a)  By  using  the  apostrophe  alone  after  singular 
nouns  ending  in  one  or  tv^o  j-'s. 

Violation.  —  Witness',  Jones'. 
Correction.  —  Witness's,  Jones's. 

{b)  By  using  the  plural  form  for  the  possessive  form. 

Violation.  —  Witnesses,  Joneses. 
Correction.  —  Witness's,  Jones's. 

Note.  —  Nouns  connected  by  conjunctions  and  implying  com- 
mon possession  take  the  possessive  sign  but  once,  and  that  on  the 
last  noun ;  but  when  not  implying  common  possession  each  noun 
must  have  the  sign. 

Ex.  Harrison  and  Morton's  campaign. 
Wade  and  Butcher's  razors. 

Cleveland's  and  Harrison's  administrations. 
Men's,  boys',  and  children's  suits. 


56  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  The  ladies  trains  were  too  long. 

2.  Five  month's  supplies  were  exhausted. 

3.  Seabury's  and  Johnson's  plasters. 

4.  James  and  John's  letters  crossed  on  the  way. 

5.  Come  quickly,  for  goodness's  sake  ! 

6.  This  book  is  her's,  not  your's. 

7.  This  we  ask  for  Jesus's  sake. 

8.  We  use  a  Wheeler's  and  Wilson's  sewing  machine. 

9.  This  will  recompense  for  ones  early  misfortunes. 
10.  Is  that  their's? 

VL  A  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  another  noun  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case,  unless  a  preposition  is  used. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  the  objective  case  in  place  of  the  pos- 
sessive to  limit  a  verbal  noun. 

Violation.  —  The  fact  of  us  remaining  need  make  no  difference 
to  you. 

Correction.  —  The  fact  of  our  remaining  need  make  no  difference 
to  you. 

{U)  By  using  an  object  after  a  verbal  noun  not  an 
infinitive. 

Violation.  —  He  attended  to  the  soliciting  subscriptions. 
Correction.  —  He  attended  to  the  soliciting  of  subscriptions,  ^r 
to  soliciting  subscriptions. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  He  saw  the  effect  of  them  giving. 

2.  He  concluded  the  giving  the  money  was  unwise. 

3.  The  accident  of  the  discovering  the  value  of  anthracite 
was  extremely  fortunate. 

4.  Her  plans  were  altered  by  her  husband  leaving  for  Europe. 


CORRECTION  OF   ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION.  57 

5.  Don't  worry  about  us  taking  cold. 

6.  He  is  afraid  to  stand  on  the  party  platform  for  fear  of  it 
breaking. 

7.  He   tried   all   means   to    stop   them   investigating    his 
record. 

8.  He  favored  the  closing  the  World's  Fair  on  Sundays. 

9.  The  passage  of  the  bill  was  delayed  by  the  committee 
failing  to  report  that  session. 

10.  This  must  be  the  end  of  you  attempting  to  control  their 
movements. 

VII.    Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  number 
and  person. 

Note.  —  Who  refers  to  persons  only. 

Which  refers  to  impersonal  antecedents. 
That  refers  to  any  antecedent. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  a  plural  pronoun  referring  to  some  such 
word  as  each^  any  one^  every  one,  etc. 

Violation.  —  If  every  one  were  convinced  of  their  error. 
Correction.  —  If  every  one  were  convinced  of  his  error. 

The   follov^ing   is   a  list  of  words  often  incorrectly 
referred  to  as  plural :  — 


Any  one 

Everybody 

One 

Anybody 

Many  a  one 

Somebody 

Each 

Neither 

Something 

Either 

None 

None  meaning  not  07ie  is  singular ;  but  none  meaning 
not  any  may  be  plural. 

Ex.   None  dares  meet  him  in  single  combat. 

Several  promised  to  come,  but  none  were  there. 


58  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

(b)  By  using  a  pronoun  without  any  real  antecedent, 
the  supposed  antecedent  being  a  syllable,  or  an  idea  in 
some  previous  word. 

Violation.  —  He  complimented  him,  which  he  returned. 

Correction,  —  He  complimented  him,  and  he  returned  the  com- 
pliment. 

Violation.  —  The  lance  of  tne  Knight  fastened  itself  in  the  bars 
of  his  opponent's  helmet,  which  unseated  the  latter. 

Correction.  —  The  lance  of  the  Knight  fastened  itself  in  the  bars 
of  his  opponent's  helmet,  and  the  shock  unseated  the  latter. 

Note.  —  Often  such  sentences  as  the  one  just  given  are  cor- 
rected by  substituting  a  demonstrative  pronoun  for  the  relative. 
But  a  demonstrative  pronoun  also  stands  for  a  noun,  and  cannot 
be  correctly  used  when  there  is  no  antecedent  noun  or  substan- 
tive clause.  Therefore,  if  we  rewrite  the  sentence  thus, —  The  lance 
of  the  Knight  fastened  itself  in  the  bars  of  his  opponents  helmet^ 
and  this  unseated  the  latter^  —  we  have  still  to  ask  what  noun  the 
pronoun  this  refers  to. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  Not  a  boy  of  the  entire  number  knew  their  own  name. 

2.  The  captain  began  to  address  the  company,  which  they 
applauded  loudly. 

3.  If  anyone  is  in  favor  of  this,  let  them  hold  up  their 
hands. 

4.  Neither  clerk  had  their  accounts  straight. 

5.  Each  man  tried  to  exculpate  themselves  and  to  throw 
the  blame  on  their  companions. 

6.  Every  one  was  looking  out  for  themselves. 

7.  He  slept  more  soundly  than  usual,  which  makes  us  hope 
he  will  soon  be  much  better. 

8.  Each  of  the  children  had  an  orange  to  take  to  their 
homes. 

9.  Not  a  single  one  had  the  least  idea  what  they  had  come 
for. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION.  59 

10.  A  solitary  woman  was  sweeping  away  by  the  light  of  the 
lamps,  for  which  when  she  had  finished  she  would  receive  a  franc. 

11.  Mohun  and  the  Lord  Castlewood  were  great  card 
players,  which  in  a  short  time  resulted  in  the  loss  of  most  of 
Castlewood's  money. 

VIII.  Verbs  agree  with  their  subjects  in  number  and 
person. 

When  a  verb  relates  to  the  separate  individuals  in- 
cluded in  a  collective  noun,  the  verb  is  in  the  plural 
number ;  when  relating  to  the  collection  as  a  whole,  the 
verb  is  in  the  singular. 

Ex.   The  Senate  is  in  session. 

The  crew  reach  the  shore,  some  on  boards  and  some  on  spars. 
A  flock  of  birds  flies  above  the  house. 
The  committee  acts  promptly. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

{a)  By  using  a  plural  verb  with  every  one^  each,  any 
one,  etc.^ 

Violation.  —  Nearly  every  one  we  knew  were  going. 
Correction.  —  Nearly  every  one  we  knew  was  going. 

{U)  By  using  a  plural  verb  with  a  subject  plural  in 
form  but  singular  in  meaning,  or  a  singular  verb  with  a 
collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality. 

Violation.  —  The  news  have  arrived. 

Correction.  —  The  news  has  arrived. 

Violation.  —  The  majority  of  the  members  is  in  favor  of  this 
resolution. 

Correction.  —  The  majority  of  the  members  are  in  favor  of  this 
resolution. 

^  For  caution  as  to  the  number  of  the  pronoun  none^  see  remark  under 
Rule  VII. 


6o  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

(c)  By  using  don't  (do  not)  with  a  subject  in  the  third 
person  singular. 

Violation.  —  He  don't  improve  much. 
Correction.  —  He  doesn't  improve  much. 

(d)  By  using  a  plural  verb  when  a  plural  adjunct 
comes  between  a  singular  subject  and  its  verb. 

Violation.  —  A  succession  of  accidents  have  discouraged  him. 
Correction.  —  A  succession  of  accidents  has  discouraged  him. 

EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  The  energy  of  all  oppose  him. 

2.  Many  a  woman  have  learned  this  to  their  sorrow. 

3.  Each  of  the  officers  were  suspected. 

4.  Nothing  but  disappointed  hopes  remain  to  them. 

5.  Caesar  with  his  veterans  have  conquered  Gaul. 

6.  Every  point,  and  there  were  many,  were  tipped  with  flame. 

7.  The  greater  part  of  the  members  is  opposed  to  him. 

8.  The  meaning  of  all  these  derivatives  and  compounds 
are  self-evident. 

9.  Vaccination  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  discoveries  that 
has  been  made  in  modern  times. 

10.  The  encouragement  of  education  and  philanthropy  were 
the  chief  objects  of  his  life. 

11.  Neither  one  example  nor  the  other  were  a  fair  illustra- 
tion of  the  case. 

12.  Though  they  hstened  with  great  attention,  not  one  of 
them  were  convinced. 

IX.    In  subordinate  clauses  the  tense  of  the  verb  is 
relative  to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  a  perfect  infinitive  or 
perfect  subjunctive  after  a  past  tense. 

Violation.  —  He  intended  to  have  done  so. 
Correction.  —  He  intended  to  do  so. 


CORRECTION   OF   ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION.  6 1 

Violation.  —  He  thought  he  might  have  gone. 
Correction.  —  He  thought  he  might  go. 

Note.  —  In  a  sentence  quoted  indirectly  and  introduced  by  a 
past  tense,  the  verbs  of  the  quotation  are  changed  from  the  present 
to  the  past  tense,  from  the  perfect  to  the  pluperfect,  from  the  future 
to  the  conditional ;  but  statements  of  general  propositions  or  un- 
changeable truths  are  kept  in  the  present  tense.  Thus,  the  sentence, 
/  have  pist  cojue,  and  will  go  with  him  as  soon  as  I  dress  for  the 
evenings  when  so  quoted,  reads  as  follows  :  He  said  that  he  had  just 
come,  and  would  go  with  him  as  soon  as  he  dressed  for  the  evening; 
but  we  say,  The  lecturer  said  that  water  is  composed  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  not  The  lecturer  said  that  water  was  composed  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen. 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  He  fully  expected  to  have  been  there. 

2.  He  meant  to  have  written. 

3.  They  finally  decided  to  have  done  the  opposite. 

4.  You  assumed  that  the  parties  might  have  been  present. 

5.  I  was  planning  that  I  might  have  avoided  meeting  them. 

6.  He  made  inquiries  to  find  how  many  miles  it  was  from 
New  York  to  Boston. 

7.  I  was  certain  that  I  could  have  gone  just  as  well  alone. 

8.  He  believed  that  there  was  rest  for  the  weary. 

9.  I  hoped  to  have  had  this  finished  by  New  Year's. 

X.  The  to  which  precedes  the  infinitive  should  not  be 
separated  from  its  verb. 

Note.  —  Some  authorities  maintain  that  the  observance  of  this 
rule  is  not  essential  to  correct  writing. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  placing  adverbs  or  phrases 
between  the  infinitive  and  its  sign  to. 

Violation.  —  To  more  fully  explain. 

Correction.  —  To  explain  more  fully,  or  more  fully  to  explain. 


62  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  He  came  with  the  intention  to  entirely  ignore  the  pro- 
posals. 

2.  We  all  expected  them  to  presently  appear. 

3.  Be  sure  to  promptly  obey  the  forthcoming  instructions. 

4.  How  can  a  man  bring  himself  to  heartlessly  ignore  all 
appeals  ? 

5.  She  intended  to  completely  mystify  them  by  her  sudden 
arrival. 

6.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  amicably  settle  this  difficulty. 

7.  No  one  can  expect  to  exactly  suit  every  one. 

8.  No  one  was  able  to  correctly  state  the  case. 

XI.    Use  the  proper  verbal  form  and  the  proper  aux- 
iliary. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

{a)  By  using  the  past  participle  for  the  preterit  or 
the  preterit  for  the  past  participle. 

Violation.  — They  danced  and  sung  all  night. 
Correction.  —  They  danced  and  sang  all  night. 

Violation.  —  Have  you  broke  your  wheel  ? 
Correction.  —  Have  you  broken  your  wheel  ? 

(b)  By  using  can  for  may^  shall  for  willy  would  for 
should,  etc.  (see  p.  45). 

Violation.  —  Can  I  speak  to  Jones  ? 
Correction.  —  May  I  speak  to  Jones  ? 

{c)  By  using    an   auxiliary   without    supplying    the 
proper  verbal  form. 

Violation.  —  He  always  has,  and  always  will  object. 
Correction.  —  He  always  has  objected,  and  always  will  object. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION.  63 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1 .  They  did  not  see  this ;  but  if  they  had,  it  would  have 
saved  them. 

2.  Three  men  were  froze  to  death. 

3.  I  know  I  will  never  see  her  again. 

4.  I  have  drove  all  day  long. 

5 .  No  accident  has  happened  yet ;  but  if  one  ever  should, 
no  one  would  be  saved. 

6.  I  will  probably  go  to  the  opera  to-morrow. 

7.  If   it  would   rain   to-morrow,    I   would   have   to    stay 
home. 

8.  I  determined  that  I  would,  and  I  had  another  trial. 

9.  I  thought  it  only  fair  that  she  would  be  allowed  to  come 
with  me. 

10.  I  always  expected  to,  and  finally  succeeded  in  raising 
the  required  amount. 

XII.  Distinguish  between  the  uses  of  the  comparative 
and  the  superlative  degrees. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  the  superlative  degree  in  comparing  tviro 
objects. 

Violation.  —  The  youngest  of  the  two. 
Correction.  —  The  younger  (of  the  two). 

{h)  By  using  the  comparative  without  an  excluding 
term  in  comparing  an  individual  with  the  rest  of  its 
class. 

Violation.  —  He  was  more  distinguished  than  all  generals  of  his 
time. 

Correction.  —  He  was  more  distinguished  than  all  other  gen- 
erals of  his  time;  or^  He  was  the  most  distinguished  general  of 
his  time. 


64  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Most  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  and  all  adjectives  of 
more  than  two,  are  compared  by  use  of  the  adverbs 
more  and  most,  not  by  terminations. 

Ex.    Watchful,  more  watchful,  most  watchful. 

Contented,  more  contented,  most  contented. 

Some  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  any  comparison. 
Errors  are  often  made  by  using  the  comparative  and 
superlative  degrees  of  such  adjectives. 

Violation.  —  The  work  is  more  complete  than  I  expected  to  find  it. 
Correction.  —  The  work  is  more  nearly  complete  than  I  expected 
to  find  it. 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  Which  is  farthest  East,  New  York  or  Philadelphia  ? 

2.  The  mother's  death  fell  harder  on  him  than  on  any 
member  of  the  family. 

3.  There  was  no  doubt  about  his  being  the  better  of  the 
three. 

4.  The  oldest  of  the  two  men  was  dressed  in  homespun, 
and  had  the  appearance  of  a  tradesman. 

5.  The  "  Press  "  is  the  best  of  any  paper  published  in  the 
city. 

6.  She  had  read  more  books  than  any  girl  in  the  class. 

7.  He  is  the  most  perfect  actor  that  I  have  ever  seen. 

8.  They  are  the  conceitedest  family  I  know  of. 

9.  There  are  four  in  the  firm,  and  he  is  much  the  younger 
member. 

10.  The  desire  for  a  new  government  is  more  universal  than 
ever  before. 

XIII.    Adjectives  agree  with  their  nouns  in  mimher. 

Note.  —  No  English  adjectives  show  distinction  of  gender  or 
<jase  ;  and  only  two,  viz.,  this  and  that,  show  distinction  of  number. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION.  6$ 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  the  plural  of  tMs  and 
^Aat  with  a  singular  noun. 

Violation.  —  I  don't  care  for  those  sort  of  apple. 
Correction.  —  I  don't  care  for  that  sort  of  apple. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  Which  do  you  prefer,  these  or  those  kind  of  hats? 

2.  He  objected  to  these  type  of  men. 

3.  Please  don't  touch  those  pile  of  clothes  till  I  get  my  list 
finished. 

4.  Don't  you  dislike  these  style  of  coats? 

5.  I  selected  several  from  those  assortment  of  cloaks. 

XIV.  Adjectives  qualify  nouns ;  adverbs  qualify  verbs ^ 
adjectives^  and  other  adverbs. 

Note.  —  It  requires  some  practice  to  determine  whether  the 
noun  or  verb  is  modified  after  verbs  expressing  being  or  state.  If 
the  noun  is  quaHfied,  an  adjective  should  be  used ;  if  the  verb,  an 
adverb.  We  say  the  potatoes  boil  soft,  if  we  mean  the  state  of  the 
potatoes  after  boiling  is  soft ;  but  we  say  the  potatoes  boil  softly,  if 
we  mean  the  process  of  boiling  goes  on  softly. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  an  adverb  when  the 
noun  is  qualified,  or  an  adjective  when  the  verb  is  quali- 
fied. 

Violation.  —  She  looks  prettily  in  that  dress ;  she  sings  sweet. 
Correction.  —  She  looks  pretty  in  that  dress ;  she  sings  sweetly. 

EXAMPLES   FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  He  appeared  very  handsomely  in  his  costume. 

2.  He  recited  perfect  to-day. 

3.  They  gave  the  decision  fair  enough. 

4.  It  is  buried  deeply. 

SCH.  ENG. — 5 


66  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

5.  This  tastes  very  strongly  of  pepper. 

6.  The  gas  has  escaped,  and  the  air  smells  very  badly. 

7.  How  sweetly  and  gently  the  pony  looks. 

8.  Deal  gentle  with  them. 

9.  Carry  this  very  steady. 

10.    Fix  the  curtain  pole  a  little  more  firmly,  please. 

XV.  T/ie  article  an  is  used  before  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  sounds  and  before  words  beginning  with  a 
pronounced  h  and  having  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable. 
The  article  a  is  used  before  all  other  words. 

Ex.  An  apple,  an  honor,  an  orange,  an  hypothesis,  an  hydrangea ; 
but^  a  house,  a  horse,  a  history,  a  hypocrite. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  an  before  words  beginning  with  h^  but 
with  no  accent  on  the  second  syllable. 

Violation.  —  An  halter,  an  horrid  man,  an  history,  an  horoscope. 
Correction.  —  A  halter,  a  horrid  man,  a  history,  a  horoscope. 

Note.  —  Usage  varies  as  to  words  of  two  syllables  beginning 
with  h  and  having  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable. 

Ex.   A  hotel  or  an  hotel. 

ip)  By  using  an  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
having  the  sound  of  y  or  w. 

Violation.  —  An  union,  an  usage,  such  an  one. 
Correction.  —  A  union,  a  usage,  such  a  one. 

Note.  —  The  article  should  be  repeated  before  each  of  several 
expressions  in  the  same  construction,  where  they  denote  separate 
persons  or  things. 

Ex.   There  go  a  lawyer  and  a  doctor ; 
not.  There  go  a  lawyer  and  doctor. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION.         6/ 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  He  was  an  hypocritical  man. 

2.  The  check  read  for  an  hundred  dollars. 

3.  The  travelers  at  length  came  to  an  hostelry. 

4.  Found  in  a  omnibus,  a  gold-headed  cane. 

5.  First  of  all,  one  must  have  a  hypothesis. 
.6.  Let  us  consider  an  hypothetical  case. 

7.  An  hierarchy  is  a  government  by  the  priesthood  of  any 
religion. 

8.  He  had  an  humorous  way  of  looking  at  every  question. 

9.  I  was  reading  an  European  history  yesterday. 
ID.   He  held  him  with  a  iron  grasp. 

II.  The  society  elected  three  officers,  —  a  president,  a 
secretar}%  and  treasurer. 

XVT.  Either,!  neither,  both,  former,  latter,  etc.,  are 
used  in  speaking  of  only  two  ;  any,  none,  one,  all,  first, 
last,  etc.,  in  speaking  of  more  than  two. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  these  words  without 
regard  to  the  dual  and  plural  distinction. 

Violation.  —  Neither  of  the  three  will  do. 
Correction.  —  None  of  the  three  will  do. 

EXAMPLES  FOR   CORRECTION. 

1 .  Of  these  four  generals,  neither  showed  any  fitness  for  the 
place. 

2.  James,  Harry,  and  John  were  there;  the  latter  made 
better  use  of  his  time  than  any  of  the  others. 

3.  Three  propositions  were  made,  either  of  which  would 
have  suited  me. 

1  Some  authorities  maintain  that  either  may  be  used  correctly  in  speak- 
ing of  more  than  two. 


68  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

4.  They  both  saw  the  accident,  but  none  of  them  made  any 
attempt  to  give  help. 

5.  There  are  only  two  possible  ways  of  doing  this  :  the  first 
I  have  explained  already ;  the  last  I  shall  take  up  now. 

XVII.  Two  negatives  make  an  affirmative. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  a  negative  with  such 
words  as  only^  hardly,  but,  etc. 

Violation.  —  They  haven't  only  one  more. 
Correction.  —  They  have  only  one  more. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  Harrison  won't  have  but  one  term. 

2.  The  immigrants  couldn't  find  scarcely  anything  to  eat. 

3.  Nobody  could  hardly  imagine  the  situation. 

4.  I  can't  scarcely  make  out  with  this. 

5.  They  couldn't  barely  squeeze  through  the  opening. 

XVIII.  Use  a  preposition  which  will  properly  express 
the  relation  of  the  noun  introduced. 

Note.  —  English  being  an  uninflected  language,  the  relation  of 
nouns  is  not  indicated  by  case  endings,  but  by  prepositions.  Care 
must  therefore  be  taken  to  use  a  preposition  that  expresses  the 
relation  intended. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  a  preposition  which 
does  not  express  the  proper  relation. 

Violation.  —  He  went  in  the  shop. 
Correction.  —  He  went  into  the  shop. 

EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION.^ 

1.  His  independence  on  his  family. 

2.  They  saw  him  go  over  at  the  stable. 

— . . _— a 

1  These  examples  might  have  been  given  under  Propriety. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS   IN  CONSTRUCTION.  69 

3.  I  am  going  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street. 

4.  Often  of  a  Sunday  afternoon  he  would  spend  hours 
remonstrating  with  her. 

5.  I  saw  two  horses  run  in  the  stable. 

6.  Her  youngest  son  enlisted  for  the  army. 

7.  Compare   the   character    of   Washington    to    that    of 
Napoleon. 

8.  Don't  take  her  in  your  confidence  if  you  do  not  wish  to 
find  trouble. 

9.  Some  people  have  a  faculty  for  making  trouble  to  others. 
10.  You  cannot  help  being  impatient  at  them. 

XIX.    Conjunctions  or  relatives  connect  sentences. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  prepositions  for  connectives. 

Violation.  —  You  must  not  go  without  you  get  permission. 
Correction.  —  You  must  not  go  unless  you  get  permission. 

Note.  —  The  adverb  like  must  be  followed  by  a  preposition, 
expressed  or  understood,  and  should  never  be  used  as  a  conjunction. 

Violation.  —  He  went  to  war  like  David  went. 
Correction.  —  He  went  to  war  like  [unto]  David,  or^  went  to  war 
as  David  went. 

{b)  By  using  both  conjunction  and  relative. 

Violation.  —  This  was  his  favorite  spot,  and  which  he  chose  for 
his  grave. 

Correction.  —  This  was  his  favorite  spot,  which  he  chose  for  his 
grave ;  or,  This  was  his  favorite  spot,  and  the  one  which  he  chose 
for  his  grave. 

EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION. 

1.  The  enemy  found  the  fight  would  be  useless  except  the 
guard  should  be  bribed. 

2.  The  Indians  believe  in  a  great  Spirit,  and  which  they 
worship  with  many  curious  ceremonies. 


70  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

3.  I  would  do  anything  sooner  to  going  through  with  this 
discussion. 

4.  He  looked  like  he  was  a  very  sick  man. 

5.  He  acted  like  he  couldn't  bear  to  have  them  near  him. 

XX.  Every  sentence  should  be  grammatically  com- 
plete; and  every  word  should  be  a  grammatical  element 
in  the  sentence. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  using  two  words  for  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

Violation.  —  My  mother,  when  she  came  to  investigate  the 
matter,  she  found  it  as  was  expected. 

Correction.  —  My  mother,  when  she  came  to  investigate  the 
matter,  found  it  as  was  expected. 

{b)  By  using  two  thats  to  introduce  a  clause. 

Violation.  —  He  said  that  when  all  the  points  were  made  that  the 
opposition  would  be  glad  to  settle. 

Correction. —  He  said  that  when  all  the  points  were  made,  the 
opposition  would  be  glad  to  settle. 

(c)  By  using  a  word  that  has  no  construction  in  the 
sentence. 

Violation.  —  The  animosity  which  she  exhibited  in  early  life,  she 
lost  it  all  in  later  years. 

Correction.  —  All  the  animosity  which  she  exhibited  in  early  life, 
she  lost  in  later  years. 

(</)  By  omitting  an  essential  part  of  the  sentence. 

Violation.  —  He  knows  better  than  withhold  information. 
Correction.  —  He  knows  better  than  to  withhold  information. 

EXAMPLES   FOR  CORRECTION. 

1 .  He  was  as  violent,  if  not  more  violent,  than  his  opponent. 

2.  This  fellow,  after  the  speaking  began,  he  kept  interrupt- 
ing the  orators. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


71 


3.  The  young  tradeswomen  here,  the  shop-girls,  dress- 
makers, etc.,  are  some  of  them  extremely  pretty. 

4.  He  coughed  between  every  other  word  he  spoke. 

5.  They  felt  that  when  everything  was  arranged  and  the 
old  people  comfortably  settled,  that  they  could  be  more 
independent. 

6.  Look  up  in  the  dictionary  every  word  the  spelling  of 
which  you  are  not  certain. 

7.  She  was  as  good,  if  not  better,  than  any  seamstress  in 
the  class. 

8.  They  have  for  a  long  while,  and  they  still  will  continue, 
to  deal  with  us. 

9.  Dr.  M he  was  sure  of  being  on  the  right  course. 

10.    I  never  like  athletic  games;  you  have  to  wait  so  long 

between  each  event. 


SUMMARY    OF    TWENTY    RULES    FOR   CORRECTING   ERRORS 
IN   CONSTRUCTION. 


Nouns 

AND 

Pronouns. 


1.  Some  domesticated  foreign  words  retain   their 

original  plurals. 

2.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative. 

3.  The  predicate  after  the  verb  to  be,  or  other  verb 

expressing  existence,  is  in  the  same  case  as 
the  subject. 

4.  The  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 

jective case. 

5.  All  nouns  in  the  singular,  and  nouns  in  the  plural 

not  ending  in  j,  form  the  possessive  by  adding 
apostrophe  and  s.  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  add 
the  apostrophe  alone.  Definite  pronouns  do 
not  take  the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive  case. 

6.  A  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  another  noun  is  put 

in  the  possessive  case,  unless  a  preposition  is 
used. 

7.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  number 

and  person. 


72 


SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 


Verbs. 


Adjectives 

AND 

Adverbs. 


Preposi- 
tions. 

Conjunc- 
tions. 

General. 


8.  Verbs  agree  with  their  subjects  in  number  and 

person. 

9.  In  subordinate  clauses  the  tense  of  the  verb  is 

relative  to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

10.  The  to  which  precedes  the  infinitive  should  not 

be  separated  from  its  verb. 

11.  Use  the  proper  verbal  form    and   the    proper 

auxiliary. 

12.  Distinguish  between  the  uses  of  the  comparative 

and  the  superlative  degrees. 

13.  Adjectives  agree  with  their  nouns  in  number. 

14.  Adjectives  qualify  nouns ;  adverbs  qualify  verbs, 

adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

15.  The  article  an  is  used  before  words  beginning 

with  a  vowel  sound,  and  before  words  begin- 
ning with  a  pronounced  h  and  having  an  accent 
on  the  second  syllable.  The  article  a  is  used 
before  all  other  words. 

16.  Either^  neither,  both,  former,  latter,  etc.,  are  used 

in  speaking  of  only  two ;  any,  none,  one,  all, 
first,  last,  etc.,  in  speaking  of  more  than  two. 

17.  Two  negatives  make  an  affirmative. 

18.  Use  a  preposition  which  will  properly  express 

the  relation  of  the  noun  introduced. 

19.  Conjunctions  or  relatives  connect  sentences. 

20.  Every  sentence  should  be  grammatically  com- 

plete ;  and  every  word  should  be  a  grammati- 
cal element  in  the  sentence. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES  FOR   CORRECTION. 

1.  Among  the  passengers,  not  one  will  forget  their  narrow 
escape. 

2.  He  rejoiced  at  the  thought  of  being  taken  into  partner- 
ship of  his  father's  business. 

3.  The  engineer,  finding  he  was  behind  time,  and  having 
an  open,  straight  track  ahead,  he  pulled  the  throttle  out  to  the 
last  notch. 


CORRECTION  OF  ERRORS  IN  CONSTRUCTION.  73 

4.  The  train  was  composed  entirely  of  parlor  cars,  and 
were  for  the  most  part  filled  with  many  passengers. 

5.  It  was  a  wild  and  stormy  night,  one  of  those  kind  we 
often  have  in  December. 

6.  If  you  would  begin  your  letters  sooner,  you  would 
accomplish  the  task,  if  it  is  one,  in  time. 

7.  Write  down  the  events  of  each  day ;  and  so  a  long 
letter  will  grow  beneath  your  pen,  and  which  will  not  tax  you 
to  write. 

8.  She  died  to-day,  only  twenty-three  years  old.  Youth 
and  health  are  no  security ;  it  is  an  event  which  happens  to  all. 

9.  He  put  on  the  air  brakes,  but  it  does  no  good. 

10.  Every  one  is  dressed  in  their  best. 

11.  The  St.  Louis  Express  had  to  make  good  time,  which, 
of  course,  was  known  to  the  engineer. 

12.  Besides,  lynching  was  the  only  thing  that  could  have 
been  done. 

13.  There  will  be  no  chance  of  anybody  being  disturbed. 

14.  They  rode  forward,  each  with  a  self-confident  smile 
lingering  about  their  faces. 

15.  The  knights  had  long  since  began  to  assemble. 

16.  Lord  Mohun  immediately  became  angry  and  whipped 
his  horses,  which  caused  a  runaway. 

1 7.  He  was  a  very  bold  fellow  and  reckless  at  cards,  which 
all  gentlemen  of  the  times  were. 

18.  He  took  them  in  the  smoking  car. 

19.  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King  were  dedicated  to  Prince 
Albert  of  England,  which  is  thought  to  have  been  very 
appropriate. 

20.  Last  year  we  were  defeated  in  our  first  game,  which 
seemed  to  strengthen  the  team. 

2 1 .  Despite  his  absence,  however,  the  Commission's  actions 
was  eminently  conservative. 

22.  He  is  more  entirely  in  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the 
society  than  is  any  of  its  members. 


74  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

23.  Of  the  fourteen  passengers, — all  men, — none  was  killed, 
but  eight  were  severely  injured.  A  severe  storm  prevailed,  and 
the  injured  suffered  greatly. 

24.  After  this,  five  of  the  knights  which  were  chosen  ad- 
vanced, and  with  reversed  lances  touched  the  shield  of  their 
champion. 

25.  He  went  up  and  struck  Gilbert's  shield,  which  started 
the  combat  at  once. 

26.  In  the  following  examples  the  sound  of  sentences  are 
marred  by  repetitions. 

27.  Different  provinces  furnished  men  peculiarly  fitted  to 
different  occupations. 

28.  Two  awful  piles  of  wreck  and  ruin  are  in  view,  mingled 
with  the  broken  bones  and  mangled  bodies  of  the  passengers. 
It  catches  fire,  and  the  flames  envelop  all. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

CLEARNESS,   FORCE,   AND   HARMONY. 

Good  Style.  —  Though  the  pupil  has  now  been  warned 

against  the  errors  in  diction  and  grammar  which  inex- 
perienced writers  are  apt  to  commit,  and  though  he  may 
thoroughly  understand  what  these  errors  are  and  how 
to  avoid  them,  he  is  not  necessarily  an  accomplished 
and  agreeable  writer.  If  he  is  not,  the  main  cause  of 
this  failure  may  be  that  he  has  no  interesting  and 
entertaining  thoughts  to  communicate  to  his  readers ; 
but  an  additional  cause  will  be  found  in  his  inability  to 
express  his  thoughts  in  a  pleasing  manner. 

A  boy  may  have  witnessed  an  exceedingly  amusing 
occurrence ;  and  yet  the  letter  in  which  he  gives  the 
account  to  his  friends  may  be  neither  entertaining  nor 
interesting.  The  failure  to  entertain  by  the  written 
account  cannot  be  due  to  the  lack  of  subject  matter,  but 
to  the  fact  that  his  ideas  cannot  be  apprehended  without 
great  effort  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  The  reader  has 
been  tired  by  the  use  of  unnecessary  words,  or  words 
have  been  left  out  without  which  the  writer's  ideas  could 
not  be  well  understood.  The  sentences  are  confused, 
and  so  arranged  that  they  do  not  bring  out  the  meaning 
clearly  and  forcibly ;  and  the  important  thoughts  have 
no  emphasis.  Another  reason  for  the  lack  of  interest 
will  probably  be  found  in  the  absence  of  all  illustration, 
and  in  a  consequent  literalness  of  expression,  so  that 

75 


76  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

nothing  is  suggested  to  the  reader  beyond  the  facts 
related. 

An  analysis  of  such  a  letter  might  fail  to  reveal  any 
mistake  in  the  use  of  words  or  any  solecism ;  the  sub- 
ject is  known  to  be  interesting,  and  yet  the  letter  fails 
to  please.  Evidently,  there  must  be  some  further  im- 
provement in  the  style  of  the  writer.  Accordingly,  the 
following  pages  are  devoted  to  those  rules  of  rhetoric 
the  observance  of  which  will  enable  one  to  express  his 
thoughts  clearly,  forcibly,  and  in  sentences  whose  sound 
is  pleasing  to  the  listener ;  and  an  attempt  will  be  made 
to  exhibit  to  him  the  power  which  lies  in  the  use  of 
figurative  language,  by  which  a  thought  may  be  sug- 
gested in  a  clearer  and  more  forcible  way  than  it  can 
be  stated  literally. 

Benefit  from  Instruction  in  Rhetoric.^ — It  is  extremely 
likely  that  some  students  will  make  these  improvements 
by  unconsciously  imitating  the  style  of  the  authors 
whose  books  they  read,  and  that  others  will  never 
remedy  all  their  faults  under  any  method  of  instruc- 
tion. Nevertheless  it  is  possible  to  aid  the  weakest  and 
to  hasten  the  progress  of  the  strongest,  by  familiarizing 
them  with  the  principles  of  good  style,  giving  them 
a  clear  idea  of  what  constitutes  beauty,  and  what  is  a 
blemish.  By  applying  the  rules  given  in  the  following 
pages,  students  may  detect  the  blemishes  in  their  writing, 
and,  by  making  a  revision  of  what  they  have  first  written, 
may  produce  more  creditable  and  interesting  results. 

CLEARNESS. 

That  no  effort  may  be  wasted  by  the  reader  in  attempt- 
ing to  discover  the  meaning  of  words  and  sentences,  or  in 

1  See  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Philosophy  of  Style." 


CLEARNESS,   FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  'J'J 

trying  to  decide  which  of  two  or  more  possible  meanings 
is  the  one  intended^  a  writer  should  select  and  arrange  his 
wordSy  not  only  so  that  they  may  be  understood,  but,  if 
possible,  so  that  they  cannot  be  mistmderstood. 

The  following  are  special  rules  designed  to  aid  in 
securing  this  standard  of  clearness. 

I.  Modifying  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  sho2ild,  if 
possible,  be  placed  so  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  as  to 
what  they  modify. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

{a)  By  placing  modifiers  too  far  from  the  words  which 
they  modify. 

Violation.  —  He  made  amends  when  he  discovered  his  error,  like 
a  man. 

Correction.  —  He  made  amends  like  a  man,  when  he  discovered 
his  error;  or,  Like  a  man,  he  made  amends  when  he  discovered 
his  error. 

Violation.  —  I  only  have  gratitude  for  you. 

Correction.  —  I  have  only  gratitude  for  you ;  or,  I  have  gratitude 
for  you  only. 

Only  is  more  frequently  misplaced  than  any  other 
adverb. 

Violation.  —  I  went  out  in  the  storm  and  lost  my  hat  when  she 
called. 

Correction.  —  I  went  out  in  the  storm  when  she  called,  and  lost 
my  hat ;  or.  When  she  called,  I  went  out  in  the  storm  and  lost 
my  hat. 

Violation.  —  The  police  officer  entered  as  the  criminal  sat  down, 
by  the  open  window. 

Correction.  —  The  police  officer  entered  by  the  open  window,  as 
the  criminal  sat  down ;  or,  As  the  criminal  sat  down  by  the  open 
window,  the  police  officer  entered. 


78  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Note.  —  Special  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  ambiguity  in  the  use 
of  participial  constructions. 

Violation.  —  Being  in  the  depths  of  despair,  the  sea  became  the 
refuge  that  he  had  long  been  seeking. 

Correction.  —  The  sea  became  the  refuge  that  he,  being  in  the 
depths  of  despair,  had  long  been  seeking. 

{h)  By  placing  a  modifier  so  that  it  may  be  taken 
with  either  of  two  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Violation.  —  Telephone  the  doctor,  if  he  comes  home  before 
seven,  to  call  this  evening. 

Correction.  —  Telephone  the  doctor  to  call  this  evening  if  he 
comes  home  before  seven ;  or,  If  he  comes  home  before  seven, 
telephone  the  doctor  to  call  this  evening. 

Punctuation  not  Sufficient.  —  Separating  a  modifying 
phrase  by  a  comma  often  indicates  that  it  should  not 
be  taken  with  the  part  of  the  sentence  immediately 
preceding;  and  though  the  clearness  of  a  faulty  sen- 
tence may  be  improved  in  this  way,  it  is  always  better 
to  put  the  phrase  in  its  proper  position. 

Ex.    It  is  reported  that  Mr.  Brown  is  at  the  point  of  death  at  his 
father's  summer  resort  from  typhoid  fever. 

Though  the  clearness  of  this  sentence  might  be  im- 
proved by  placing  a  comma  before  the  phrase  from 
typhoid  feveVy  the  proper  correction  is  as  follows :  — 

It  is  reported  that  Mr.  Brown  is  at  the  point  of  death  from  typhoid 
fever  at  his  father's  summer  resort. 

II.  Every  pronoun  should  be  so  placed  that  its  antece- 
dent cannot  be  mistaken. 

This  rule  is  probably  more  frequently  violated  than 
any  other  rule  of  rhetoric. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  79 

This  rule  is  violated  by  allowing  between  the  pronoun 
and  its  antecedent  another  noun  to  which  the  pronoun 
may  refer. 

Violation.  —  He  led  a  horse  from  the  stable  which  was  five 
years   old. 

Correction.  —  He  led  from  the  stable  a  horse  which  was  five 
years  old. 

Violation.  ^QoV^m.^  got  me  a  free  passage  from  the  captain  of  a 
sloop,  on  the  ground  that  I  was  a  friend  of  his. 

Correction.  —  Collins,  on  the  ground  that  I  was  a  friend  of  his, 
got  me  a  free  passage  from  the  captain  of  a  sloop. 

Ambiguity  may  often  be  avoided  by  repeating  the 
noun  instead  of  using  a  pronoun. 

Violation.  —  When  I  told  Jones  that  I  was  going  to  leave  Brown, 
he  became  very  angry. 

Correction.  —  When  I  told  Jones  that  I  was  going  to  leave  Brown, 
Jones  became  very  angry. 

Violation.  —  Smith  has  separated  from  his  partner ;  if  you  ask 
him,  he  may  employ  you. 

Correction. — Smith  has  separated  from  his  partner;  if  you  ask 
Smith,  he  may  employ  you. 

ADDITIONAL    EXAMPLES. 

On  entering  the  hall,  he  saw  some  one  holding  a  lamp  in  a 
white  gown  beckoning  to  him. 

Albany  is  a  town  containing  one  thousand  houses  and  ten 
thousand  inhabitants,  all  standing  with  their  gable  ends  to  the 
street. 

III.  The  words  selected  should  be  adequate  to  express 
the  meaning  intended. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

{a)  By  the  omission  of  words  necessary  to  complete 
the  sense. 


8o  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Violation.  —  I  cannot  remember  one  of  their  statements. 
Correction.  —  I  cannot  remember  even  one  of  their  statements. 
Violation.  —  He  is  very  near  an  agnostic  thinker. 
Correction.  —  He  is  very  near  to  becoming  an  agnostic  thinker. 

(h)  By  the  use  of  general  in  place  of  specific  terms. 

Violation. — It  is  better  to  take  this  post  by  strategy  than  by 
force. 

Correction.  —  It  is  wiser  \or  more  prudent]  to  take  this  post  by 
strategy  than  by  force. 

ic)  By  the  use  of  a  word  capable  of  two  meanings. 

Violation.  —  He  draws  a  certain  amount  each  year. 

Correction.  —  He  draws  a  fixed  amount  each  year;  or.  He  draws 
an  unfaiUng  amount  each  year. 

Violation.  —  That  is  a  dear  little  trinket. 

Correction.  —  That  is  an  expensive  little  trinket;  or,  That  is  a 
pretty  little  trinket. 

IV.  In  every  sentence,  imity  of  thought  should  be  pre- 
served; i.e.,  there  shoidd  be  but  one  main  thought,  arid  the 
construction  shoidd  vtake  this  evident. 

Unity  is  often  given  as  one  of  the  four  essentials  of 
good  style,  but  may  properly  be  classified  under  clear- 
ness. The  objection  to  presenting  several  main  thoughts 
in  a  single  sentence  is  the  possible  misunderstanding  of 
the  relation  between  the  several  dependent  and  inde- 
pendent members  of  the  sentence.  This  misunderstand- 
ing is  evidently  the  result  of  a  lack  of  clearness. 

This  rule  is  violated  — 

(a)  By  connecting  independent  sentences  which  have 
no  real  connection  in  thought. 

Fz^/^//^«.  — Lawrenceville  is  a  small  town  in  New  Jersey,  half- 
way between  Trenton  and  Princeton ;  and  the  school  grounds  are 
on  the  east  side  of  the  road  which  runs  through  the  village. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND    HARMONY.  8 1 

Correction.  —  Lawrenceville  is  a  small  town  in  New  Jersey,  half- 
way between  Trenton  and  Princeton.  The  school  grounds  are  on 
the  east  side  of  the  road  which  runs  through  the  village. 

(b)  By  making  an  unnecessary  change  of  subject. 

Violation.  —  After  the  convicts  reached  the  station,  the  officers 
handcuffed  them,  and  the  train  officials  took  them  into  the  smoking 
car,  which  was  already  crowded  with  tourists  who  were  returning 
from  the  fair. 

Correction.  —  After  the  convicts  reached  the  station,  they  were 
handcuffed  by  the  officers,  and  taken  by  the  train  officials  into  the 
smoking  car,  already  crowded  with  tourists  returning  from  the 
fair. 

(c)  By  long  parenthetical  clauses,  or  by  a  number 
of  dependent  clauses  or  phrases  between  subject  and 
predicate. 

Violation.  —  Police  matrons,  for  whose  employment  at  the  police 
stations  of  the  city  where  women  and  girls  were  detained  this 
society  joined  its  efforts  with  those  of  others  alike  interested,  are 
now  on  duty,  the  needed  legislation  having  been  secured  and  carried 
into  effect. 

Correction.  —  This  society  joined  its  efforts  with  those  of  others 
alike  interested,  for  the  employment  of  police  matrons  at  the  police 
stations  of  this  city  where  women  and  girls  were  detained.  The 
needed  legislation  having  been  secured  and  carried  into  effect,  the 
matrons  are  now  on  duty. 


ADDITIONAL    EXAMPLE. 

The  girl  heard  the  shot  distinctly,  she  declares,  while  the 
others,  who  were  twenty  feet  nearer  the  spot  where  the  body 
was  found,  and  who,  from  the  peculiar  acoustic  properties  of 
the  flat,  aided  by  those  of  the  court,  which  would  concentrate 
the  sound  waves  and  naturally  force  them  through  the  window 
into  the  two  parlors,  connected  by  a  wide  archway,  should 
have  heard  the  report  clearly,  have  sworn  that  they  did  not. 

SCH.  ENG.  —  6 


82  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

V.  Very  often  a  faulty  sentence  cannot  be  corrected  by 
any  of  the  foregoing  riiles^  but  must  be  rewritten  before 
it  will  convey  the  writer  s  intended  meaning. 

The  newspaper  reporter  who  wrote  the  following 
item,  — 

"The  office  of  the  Italian  journal  'Roma'  was  wrecked  and  an 
Italian  restaurant  was  demolished,  as  well  as  other  damage  done  to 
the  property  of  Italian  residents,"  — 

did  not  mean  to  say  that  other  damage  was  demolished ; 
and  it  will  be  difficult  to  correct  the  sentence  without 
rewriting  it  somewhat  as  follows  :  — 

"The  office  of  the  Italian  journal  'Roma'  was  wrecked;  an 
Italian  restaurant  was  demolished;  and  other  damage  was  done 
to  the  property  of  Italian  residents." 

It  is  difficult  to  say  what  was  in  the  mind  of  the  cor- 
respondent who  wrote  the  following :  — 

"It  is  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  the  United  States  has  ever  had 
to  deal  with,  when  the  people  .of  another  country  voluntarily  asked 
for  annexation,  the  protest  of  foreign  powers.  Consequently  the 
United  States  must  decide  whether  it  will  assume  the  risk  of  an- 
nexation and  its  possible  results.  That's  the  whole  thing  in  a 
nutshell.  .  .  .  Both  propositions  have  earnest  advocates,  who, 
fortunately  for  the  object  in  view,  concede  that  the  other  has  many 
merits.  The  conviction  that  either  a  protectorate  must  be  estab- 
lished or  annexation  provided  for  grows  steadily,  as  the  alternative 
in  case  both  measures  are  rejected  is  more  clearly  appreciated." 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXAMPLES     OF    VIOLATION    OF    CLEARNESS. 

Explain  how  clearness  is  lost  in  each  sentence,  and  correct 
the  fault :  — 

1.  He  believed  that  if  they  could  get  the  bill  up,  they  could 
hold  the  House  in  session  until  it  should  be  finally  disposed  of. 

2.  Vestibule  cars  were  behind  the  noble  engine  filled  with 
passengers  hastening  homeward. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  83 

3.  They  pass  the  lights  made  dim  by  the  storm  on  the  track 
at  Yonkers. 

4.  Just  as  the  bookmakers  were  dividing  up  the  profits,  the 
police  rushed  in  and  said  they  were  all  under  arrest. 

5.  He  left  the  station  with  a  long  train  full  of  travelers 
going  to  spend  Christmas  with  their  friends  and  relatives,  just 
half  an  hour  behind  the  Niagara  Express. 

6.  The  engineer  sat  waiting  for  the  signal  to  start  from  the 
conductor. 

7.  The  engineer  all  at  once  sees  that  the  "Gibraltar"  is 
standing  there  on  his  track.  Quickly  reversing  at  full  speed, 
the  wheels  begin  to  rotate  backward,  but  to  no  purpose. 

8.  The  preceding  train  also  carries  passengers  en  route  for 
their  homes  ;  viz.,  the  Niagara  Express. 

9.  The  signal  is  given  for  him  to  pull  out.  Pushing  for- 
ward the  lever,  the  great  engine  starts. 

10.  And  he  spake  unto  his  sons,  saying,  Saddle  me  the  ass ; 
and  they  saddled  him. 

11.  There  are  guards  to  protect  the  tibia  and  the  fibula  of 
the  leg,  usually  made  of  metal. 

12.  But,  unfortunately,  we  can  as  yet  only  infer  from  this 
experiment  that  such  a  constitution  is  possible.  We  cannot 
say  whether  it  will  be  good  or  bad. 

13.  He  spent  most  of  his  time  looking  from  the  clubhouse 
windows  of  which  he  was  a  member. 

14.  Our  Canadian  neighbors  have  been  for  some  time  past 
encroaching  on  the  rights  of  the  United  States,  by  their  un- 
doubtedly unlawful  killing  of  the  seals. 

15.  He  had  difficulty  in  breathing,  which  yielded  to  treat- 
ment, at  the  expense  of  his  strength. 

16.  Wait  till  I  get  a  big  boy. 

17.  First,  the  proverbial  corruption  of  the  officials  was  not 
above  turning  a  considerable  part  of  the  money  destined  to 
the  purchase  of  food  and  corn  for  sowing  into  their  own 
pockets. 


84  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

1 8.  In  response  to  such  an  intimation,  several  opponents  of 
the  bill  to-day  remarked  with  considerable  sarcasm  that  they 
should  not  heed  it,  unless  it  -assumed  a  more  definite  and  spe- 
cific form. 

19.  It  is  understood  that  the  sight  of  the  guns  of  the 
"Atlanta"  has  not  brought  the  President  of  Haiti  and  his 
Minister  of  Justice  to  understand  the  seriousness  with  which 
the  Administration  looks  upon  the  imprisonment  of  one  of  its 
citizens  contrary  to  law. 

20.  A  well-known  firm,  after  joining  the  society,  caused  to 
be  drawn  from  its  books,  and  sent  to  us  for  revision,  a  list  of 
twenty  societies  to  which  it  had  for  many  years  contributed. 
Upon  examination  we  reported  six  as  unworthy  of  confidence 
or  support.     It  thus  cut  off  a  considerable  annual  waste. 

21.  There  has  been  much  inquiry  for  our  publications  from 
other  cities  and  towns  for  use  in  forming  kindred  societies ; 
one  request  coming  from  the  far-off  university  town  of  Kharkof, 
Russia,  while  several  have  come  from  France. 

22.  Mrs.  Harris  had  everything  she  could  wish  that  money 
could  buy,  was  a  great  favorite  in  Cleveland  society,  and  appar- 
ently lived  happily  with  her  husband. 

23.  Two  letters  were  received  from  the  Corporation  Coun- 
sel and  President  Barker,  of  the  Tax  Board,  complaining  of  the 
inadequacy  of  their  quarters  and  the  filthy  condition  of  the 
building. 

24.  The  whole  list  contained  the  names  of  more  than  one 
hundred  deputies  who  had  been  beneficiaries  of  the  Panama 
fund.  The  sums  paid  to  these  men  varied  between  1,000  and 
2,000  francs  and  300,000  francs  each. 

25.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  arrived  in  the  city  yester- 
day, and  is  at  the  Gilsey  House,  and  personal  business  is  the 
reason  for  his  presence  here,  and  he  says  he  does  not  think 
he  will  have  time  during  this  visit  to  go  to  the  Navy  Yard. 

26.  The  police  could,  if  they  would,  shut  up  every  gambling 
place  in  the  city.     They  know  where  they  are. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND    HARMONY.  8$ 

27.  The  operation  of  this  bill  upon  the  Brooklyn  indictments 
—  when  enacted,  as  it  seems  certain  to  be — will  be  scrutinized 
closely. 

28.  The  flour  bought  by  the  municipal  council  of  St.  Peters- 
burg for  the  poor  was  found  to  be  mixed  up  with  indigestible 
substances. 

29.  It  has  come  to  be  a  pretty  well  defined  conviction  that 
there  is  but  one  proper  and  just  course  for  the  United  States  to 
pursue,  and  that  is  to  accede  to  the  desires  of  the  enlightened 
and  interested  people  of  the  islands  in  one  form  or  another. 

30.  He  mastered  the  art  of  engraving  with  the  intention  of 
publishing  a  book  never  to  be  completed  on  the  machinery 
employed  in  the  Gota  Canal  Works. 

31.  The  Union  League  Club  of  New  York,  as  will  be  the 
case  with  the  great  Union  of  States,  to  aid  in  the  preservation 
of  which  it  was  brought  into  existence  in  1863,  has  passed 
under  new  executive  control. 

32.  Whenever  the  Democrats  can  find  enough  members  to 
vote  for  the  repeal  of  the  Silver  Purchase  Law,  who,  with 
Republican  aid,  can  pass  the  bill,  that  is  the  thing  for  Repub- 
licans to  do. 

33.  Paris  is  the  place  of  all  others  to  find  big  wax  dolls,  with 
flaxen  hair  and  pink  cheeks,  that  squeak  when  you  squeeze 
them  and  shut  their  eyes  when  you  lay  them  down.  But  I 
doubt  very  much  whether  the  true  healthy  child  really  cares 
for  these  things. 

34.  They  are  all  men  representative  of  the  best  class  in 
Hawaii,  and  on  this  errand  will  voice  the  desires  of  the  intelli- 
gent and  enterprising  portion  of  Hawaiian  population.  That 
portion  is  made  up  of  the  foreigners  who  have  gone  to  that 
country  and  those  who  were  born  there  of  American  and  Euro- 
pean parents. 

35.  He  was  born  of  an  humble  family  in  Genoa  in  1784. 
At  a  very  early  age  he  showed  great  musical  talent,  and  his 
father,  who   himself  played    the   violin   a   little,  resolved   to 


86  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

develop  it  to  the  utmost.  Accordingly  the  instrument  was 
placed  in  his  hands  almost  as  soon  as  he  could  talk,  and  with 
such  instruction  as  his  father  could  give  him  he  was  made  to 
practice  nearly  the  whole  time,  stopping  only  to  eat  and  to 
sleep. 

36.  From  other  sources  it  was  learned  that  it  is  the  present 
intention  of  the  Commissioner  to  visit  the  several  settlements 
in  the  other  islands  on  the  "  Rush."  The  "  Rush  "  is  expected 
to  return  after  a  week's  stay  here,  as  her  services  will  be  no 
longer  required. 

37.  The  most  important  business  was  the  report  of  the 
Finance  Committee,  which  showed  that  the  ^250,000  required 
by  the  act  of  the  Legislature  to  be  raised  by  subscription  before 
the  250  acres  of  land  in  Bronx  Park  could  be  secured  and  the 
^500,000  to  be  given  by  the  city  could  be  obtained,  was  prac- 
tically in  hand. 

^S.  This  sudden  change  of  mind  on  the  part  of  the  Presi- 
dent was  wholly  unexpected,  and  is  not  to  be  attributed  to  any 
outside  influence  brought  to  bear  upon  him.  On  the  contrary, 
the  men  who  came  to  Washington  yesterday  to  talk  over  once 
more  the  situation  with  the  authorities,  left  the  Secretary  de- 
cidedly disappointed. 

39.  The  chimpanzee  is  supposed  to  stand  next  to  man. 
This  is  owing  principally  to  his  brain  and  the  formation  of  his 
thumb.  It  has  a  man's  appetite,  when  cultivated.  It  learns  to 
sit  at  table,  as  a  man  has  to  do,  and  partakes  of  everything, 
being  particularly  fond  of  sweets.  It  has  even  been  known  to 
become  addicted  to  strong  drink  !  —  another  manly  art. 

EXTRACT  TO  ILLUSTRATE  CLEARNESS. 

In  each  of  the  examples  on  the  preceding  pages  the 
writer's  meaning  is  not  clearly  expressed.  The  follow- 
ing extract  from  an  author  remarkable  for  the  lucidity 
of   his  style,  is   given   in  order   that  the  student  may 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY  87 

contrast  the  sentences  in  the  preceding  passages  with 
those  to  follow,  and  thus  appreciate  the  value  of  clear- 
ness of  expression. 

[from   MACAULAY's  "history  of  ENGLAND."] 

And  now  the  time  for  the  great  hazard  drew  near.  The 
night  was  not  ill  suited  for  such  an  enterprise.  The  moon  was 
indeed  at  the  full,  and  the  northern  streamers  were  shining 
brilliantly.  But  the  marsh  fog  lay  so  thick  on  Sedgemoor  that 
no  object  could  be  discerned  there  at  the  distance  of  fifty 
paces. 

The  clock  struck  eleven,  and  the  Duke  with  his  bodyguard 
rode  out  of  the  Castle.  He  was  not  in  the  frame  of  mind 
which  befits  one  who  is  about  to  strike  a  decisive  blow.  The 
very  children  who  pressed  to  see  him  pass,  observed  and  long 
remembered  that  his  look  was  sad  and  full  of  evil  augury. 
His  army  marched  by  a  circuitous  path,  near  six  miles  in 
length,  towards  the  royal  encampment  on  Sedgemoor.  Part 
of  the  route  is  to  this  day  called  War  Lane.  The  foot  were 
led  by  Monmouth  himself.  The  horse  were  confided  to  Grey, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  some  who  remembered  the 
mishap  at  Bridport.  Orders  were  given  that  strict  silence 
should  be  preserved,  that  no  drum  should  be  beaten,  and  no 
shot  fired.  The  word  by  which  the  insurgents  were  to  recog- 
nize one  another  in  the  darkness  was  Soho.  It  had  doubtless 
been  selected  in  allusion  to  Soho  Fields  in  London,  where 
their  leader's  palace  stood. 

At  about  one  in  the  morning  of  Monday  the  sixth  of  July, 
the  rebels  were  on  the  open  moor.  But  between  them  and  the 
enemy  lay  three  broad  rhines  filled  with  water  and  soft  mud. 
Two  of  these,  called  the  Black  Ditch  and  the  Langmoor 
Rhine,  Monmouth  knew  that  he  must  pass.  But,  strange  to 
say,  the  existence  of  a  trench,  called  the  Bussex  Rhine,  which 
immediately  covered  the  royal  encampment,  had  not  been 
mentioned  to  him  by  any  of  his  scouts. 


88  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  wains  which  carried  the  ammunition  remained  at  the 
entrance  of  the  moor.  The  horse  and  foot,  in  a  long  narrow 
column,  passed  the  Black  Ditch  by  a  causeway.  There  was 
a  similar  causeway  across  the  Langmoor  Rhine ;  but  the  guide, 
in  the  fog,  missed  his  way.  There  was  some  delay  and  some 
tumult  before  the  error  could  be  rectified.  At  length  the 
passage  was  effected ;  but,  in  the  confusion,  a  pistol  went  off. 
Some  men  of  the  Horse  Guards,  who  were  on  watch,  heard 
the  report,  and  perceived  that  a  great  multitude  was  advancing 
through  the  mist.  They  fired  their  carbines,  and  galloped 
off  in  different  directions  to  give  the  alarm.  Some  hastened 
to  Weston  Zoyland,  where  the  cavalry  lay.  One  trooper 
spurred  to  the  encampment  of  the  infantry,  and  cried  out 
vehemently  that  the  enemy  was  at  hand.  The  drums  of 
Dumbarton's  regiment  beat  to  arms;  and  the  men  got  fast 
into  their  ranks.  It  was  time  ;  for  Monmouth  was  already 
drawing  up  his  army  for  action.  He  ordered  Grey  to  lead  the 
way  with  the  cavalry,  and  followed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  infantry.  Grey  pushed  on  till  his  progress  was  unex- 
pectedly arrested  by  the  Bussex  Rhine.  On  the  opposite  side 
of  the  ditch  the  King's  foot  were  hastily  forming  in  order  of 
battle. 

"  For  whom  are  you  ? "  called  out  an  officer  of  the  Foot 
Guards.  "  For  the  King,"  replied  a  voice  from  the  ranks  of 
the  rebel  cavalry.  "For  which  King?"  was  then  demanded. 
The  answer  was  a  shout  of  "  King  Monmouth,"  mingled  with 
the  war  cry,  which  forty  years  before  had  been  inscribed  on  the 
colors  of  the  parliamentary  regiments,  "  God  with  us."  The 
royal  troops  instantly  fired  such  a  volley  of  musketry  as  sent 
the  rebel  horse  flying  in  all  directions.  The  world  agreed  to 
ascribe  this  ignominious  rout  to  Grey's  pusillanimity.  Yet  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  that  Churchill  would  have  succeeded 
better  at  the  head  of  men  who  had  never  before  handled  arms 
on  horseback,  and  whose  horses  were  unused,  not  only  to  stand 
fire,  but  to  obey  the  rein. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  89 

A  few  minutes  after  the  Duke's  horse  had  dispersed  them- 
selves over  the  moor,  his  infantry  came  up,  running  fast,  and 
guided  through  the  gloom  by  the  lighted  matches  of  Dumbar- 
ton's regiment. 

Monmouth  was  startled  by  finding  that  a  broad  and  profound 
trench  lay  between  him  and  the  camp  which  he  had  hoped  to 
surprise.  The  insurgents  halted  on  the  edge  of  the  rhine,  and 
fired.  Part  of  the  royal  infantry  on  the  opposite  bank  returned 
the  fire.  During  three  quarters  of  an  hour  the  roar  of  the 
musketry  was  incessant.  The  Somersetshire  peasants  behaved 
themselves  as  if  they  had  been  veteran  soldiers,  save  only  that 
they  leveled  their  pieces  too  high. 

But  now  the  other  divisions  of  the  royal  army  were  in 
motion.  The  Life  Guards  and  Blues  came  pricking  fast  from 
Weston  Zoyland,  and  scattered  in  an  instant  some  of  Grey's 
horse,  who  had  attempted  to  rally.  The  fugitives  spread  a 
panic  among  their  comrades  in  the  rear,  who  had  charge  of 
the  ammunition.  The  wagoners  drove  off  at  full  speed,  and 
never  stopped  till  they  were  many  miles  from  the  field  of  battle. 
Monmouth  had  hitherto  done  his  part  like  a  stout  and  able 
warrior.  He  had  been  seen  on  foot,  pike  in  hand,  encouraging 
his  infantry  by  voice  and  by  example.  But  he  was  too  well 
acquainted  with  military  affairs  not  to  know  that  all  was  over. 
His  men  had  lost  the  advantage  which  surprise  and  darkness 
had  given  them.  They  were  deserted  by  the  horse  and  by  the 
ammunition  wagons.  The  King's  forces  were  now  united  and 
in  good  order.  Feversham  had  been  awakened  by  the  firing, 
had  got  out  of  bed,  had  adjusted  his  cravat,  had  looked  at 
himself  well  in  the  glass,  and  had  come  to  see  what  his  men 
were  doing.  Meanwhile,  what  was  of  much  more  importance, 
Churchill  had  rapidly  made  an  entirely  new  disposition  of  the 
royal  infantry.  The  day  was  about  to  break.  The  event  of 
a  conflict  on  an  open  plain,  by  broad  sunlight,  could  not  be 
doubtful.  Yet  Monmouth  should  have  felt  that  it  was  not  for 
him  to  fly,  while  thousands  whom  affection  for  him  had  hurried 


90  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

to  destruction  were  still  fighting  manfully  in  his  cause.  But 
vain  hopes  and  the  intense  love  of  Hfe  prevailed.  He  saw  that 
if  he  tarried,  the  royal  cavalry  would  soon  intercept  his  retreat. 
He  mounted  and  rode  from  the  field. 

Yet  his  foot,  though  deserted,  made  a  gallant  stand.  The 
Life  Guards  attacked  them  on  the  right,  the  Blues  on  the  left ; 
but  the  Somersetshire  clowns,  with  their  scythes  and  the  butt 
ends  of  their  muskets,  faced  the  royal  horse  like  old  soldiers. 
Oglethorpe  made  a  vigorous  attempt  to  break  them,  and  was 
manfully  repulsed.  Sarsfield,  a  brave  Irish  officer,  whose  name 
afterwards  obtained  a  melancholy  celebrity,  charged  on  the 
other  flank.  His  men  were  beaten  back.  He  was  himself 
struck  to  the  ground,  and  lay  for  a  time  as  one  dead. 
But  the  struggle  of  the  hardy  rustics  could  not  last.  Their 
powder  and  ball  were  spent.  Cries  were  heard  of  "  Ammuni- 
tion !  For  God's  sake,  ammunition  !  "  But  no  ammunition 
was  at  hand.  And  now  the  King's  artillery  came  up.  It  had 
been  posted  half  a  mile  off,  on  the  high  road  from  Weston 
Zoyland  to  Bridgewater.  So  defective  were  then  the  appoint- 
ments of  an  English  army,  that  there  would  have  been  much 
difficulty  in  dragging  the  great  guns  to  the  place  where  the 
battle  was  raging,  had  not  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  offered 
his  coach  horses  and  traces  for  the  purpose.  This  interference 
of  a  Christian  prelate  in  a  matter  of  blood  has,  with  strange 
inconsistency,  been  condemned  by  some  Whig  writers  who  can 
see  nothing  criminal  in  the  conduct  of  the  numerous  Puritan 
ministers  then  in  arms  against  the  government.  Even  when 
the  guns  had  arrived,  there  was  such  a  want  of  gunners,  that 
a  sergeant  of  Dumbarton's  regiment  was  forced  to  take  on 
himself  the  management  of  several  pieces.  The  cannon,  how- 
ever, though  ill  served,  brought  the  engagement  to  a  speedy 
close.  The  pikes  of  the  rebel  battahons  began  to  shake ;  the 
ranks  broke ;  the  King's  cavalry  charged  again,  and  bore  down 
everything  before  them ;  the  King's  infantry  came  pouring 
across  the  ditch.     Even  in  that  extremity  the  Mendip  miners 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  9 1 

Stood  bravely  to  their  arms,  and  sold  their  lives  dearly.  But 
the  rout  was  in  a  few  minutes  complete.  Three  hundred  of 
the  soldiers  had  been  killed  or  wounded.  Of  the  rebels,  more 
than  a  thousand  lay  dead  on  the  moor. 

So  ended  the  last  fight,  deserving  the  name  of  battle,  that 
has  been  fought  on  English  ground. 


FORCE   AND    HARMONY. 

Object  in  Studying.  —  The  greater  the  writer's  pov^rer 
to  force  his  ideas  upon  the  notice  and  memory  of  the 
reader,  the  easier  will  it  be  for  the  reader  to  compre- 
hend them ;  and  the  more  agreeable  and  attractive  the 
sound  of  the  writer's  words,  the  less  energy  will  be 
required  of  the  reader  to  keep  his  mind  upon  the  writ- 
ten matter.  Therefore  text-books  on  rhetoric  gener- 
ally include  some  instruction  designed  to  show  the 
student  how  to  impress  the  reader  and  hold  his  atten- 
tion, and  how  to  write  sentences  agreeable  in  sound,  or, 
in  other  words,  how  to  gain  the  qualities  of  force  and 
harmony. 

Difficult  to  Teach.  —  It  is  entirely  practicable  and 
comparatively  easy  to  teach  an  intelligent  scholar  how 
to  write  clearly ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  defi- 
nite rules  for  writing  sentences  that  will  arrest  the 
attention,  make  a  lasting  impression,  or  give  pleasure  by 
the  beauty  of  the  sound.  Force  and  harmony  are  none 
the  less  important  qualities  of  style,  but  all  the  more 
valuable  to  a  writer,  because  their  presence  or  absence 
marks  the  distinguishing  features  of  interesting  and 
uninteresting  writing.  The  ability  to  write  with  power 
and  grace  is  the  attribute  of  genius.  Moreover,  no 
suggestion  can  be  made,  or  rule  laid  down,  for  force 


92  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

and  harmony,  which  is  not  disregarded  by  skillful  writers 
for  the  purpose  of  rhetorical  effect,  and  often  to  secure 
the  very  qualities  which  apparently  would  be  lost. 

For  example :  Nearly  every  text-book  on  rhetoric 
says,  under  the  subject  of  harmony,  that  the  repeti- 
tion of  a  word  or  sound,  especially  the  conjunction  and, 
is  offensive  to  the  ear.  Yet  there  is  nothing  offensive 
in  the  following  extract  from  Tennyson's  *'  Idylls  of 
the  King,"  a  poem  in  which  frequently  occur  passages 
where  beauty  depends  largely  on  a  rhythmic  repe- 
tition :  — 

"  I  saw  the  fiery  face  as  of  a  child 
That  smote  itself  into  the  bread,  and  went ; 
And  hither  am  I  come  ;  and  never  yet 
Hath  what  thy  sister  taught  me  first  to  see, 
This  Holy  Thing,  failed  from  my  side,  nor  come 
Cover'd,  but  moving  with  me  night  and  day, 
Fainter  by  day,  but  always  in  the  night 
Blood-red,  and  sliding  down  the  blackened  marsh 
Blood-red,  and  on  the  naked  mountain  top 
Blood-red,  and  in  the  sleeping  mere  below 
Blood-red." 

Nor  is  there  anything  offensive  in  this :  — 

"  O  brother,  had  you  known  our  mighty  hall, 
Which  Merlin  built  for  Arthur  long  ago  ! 
For  all  the  sacred  mount  of  Camelot, 
And  all  the  dim  rich  city,  roof  by  roof. 
Tower  after  tower,  spire  beyond  spire. 
By  grove,  and  garden-lawn,  and  rushing  brook. 
Climbs  to  the  mighty  hall  that  Merlin  built. 
And  four  great  zones  of  sculpture,  set  betwixt 
With  many  a  mystic  symbol,  gird  the  hall : 
And  in  the  lowest  beasts  are  slaying  men. 
And  in  the  second  men  are  slaying  beasts, 

.  And  on  the  third  are  warriors,  perfect  men, 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  93 

And  on  the  fourth  are  men  with  growing  wings, 

And  over  all  one  statue  in  the  mold 

Of  Arthur,  made  by  Merlin,  with  a  crown, 

And  peak'd  wings  pointed  to  the  Northern  Star." 

FORCE. 

Means  of  gaining  Force.  —  Though  genius  may  seem 
to  be  independent  of  rules,  there  are  a  few  principles 
of  style,  the  violation  of  which  without  sufficient  ground 
or  without  great  skill,  is  almost  certain  to  depreciate 
the  worth  of  one's  writings.  Though  originality  and 
strength  of  thought  may  be  the  most  striking  element 
in  the  masterpieces  of  style,  we  know  that  the  arrange- 
ment and  choice  of  words  have  much  to  do  with  the 
impression  made  on  the  reader.  We  also  know  that 
energy  is  wasted  on  every  unnecessary  word ;  that,  as  a 
rule,  compact,  brief  sentences  are  more  striking  than 
long,  loosely  connected  sentences ;  that  one  statement 
of  a  truth  is  better  than  two ;  that  the  emphasis  of 
words  may  be  influenced  by  their  position  in  a  sen- 
tence ;  and  that  in  a  series  of  similar  thoughts,  the  mind 
will  grasp  the  full  meaning  better  if  the  most  important 
thought  be  placed  last.  It  will  be  profitable  for  us, 
then,  to  illustrate  a  few  of  the  ways  in  which  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words  may  add  or  detract  from  the 
force  and  sound  of  the  sentence. 

I.    Unnecessary  Words. 

Errors  Classified.  —  The  fault  of  using  unnecessary 
words  is  very  common  with  young  writers,  and  most 
difficult  to  overcome.  The  student,  therefore,  should 
guard  himself  against  this  error  by  carefully  reviewing 
what  he  has  written,  and  striking  out  every  word  that 


94  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

does  not  add  to  the  thought.  The  various  ways  in  which 
unnecessary  words  creep  into  one's  writings  have  been 
classified,  and  are  named  as  follows :  — 

{a)  Tautology,  or  repeating  a  thought  that  has  just 
been  stated. 

Violation.  —  He  answered  their  question  with  bitter  sarcasm. 

He  replied  to  them  with  stinging  words. 
Correction.  —  (Either  sentence  alone  tells  as  much  as  both.) 
He  has  attained  the  summit  of  his  ambition. 
He  has  all  that  he  desires.     (Correction  same  as 
above.) 

(U)  Redundancy,  or  the  addition  of  words,  which, 
though  not  repeating  the  thought,  add  nothing  to  it. 

Violation.  —  He  indorsed  his  name  on  the  back  of  the  check. 
Correction.  —  He  indorsed  the  check. 

Violation.  —  He  returned  back  again. 
Correction.  —  He  returned- 

Violation.  —  The  last  picture  was  a  beautiful  one. 
Correction.  —  The  last  picture  was  beautiful. 

Unnecessary  words  are  often  made  use  of  in  the  form 
of  qualifying  expressions  which  add  nothing  to  the  word 
qualified. 

Violation.  —  How  many  lessons  we  may  draw  from  the  unselfish, 
beautiful  life  of  Jesus  ! 

No  adjective  can  introduce  any  loftier  thoughts  than 
those  suggested  by  the  simple  mention  of  the  life  of 
Jesus,  and  therefore  the  presence  of  any  adjective  takes 
from  the  force  of  the  sentence. 

Correction.  —  How  many  lessons  we  may  draw  from  the  life  of 
Jesus ! 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  95 

Ex.  Paul  was  the  hero  of  that  famous  book,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 

The  close  of  his  life  reminded  one  of  a  beautiful  glorious  sun- 
set in  a  summer  day. 

She  died  like  a  noble  martyr. 

He  lived  throughout  the  life  of  a  true  and  consistent  apostle 
of  Christ. 

(c)  Verbosity  or  wordinesSy  a  fault  consisting  in  a 
general  failure  to  condense  thought  into  few  words, 
especially  by  lengthening  out  the  unimportant  parts  of 
the  theme,  and  thus  wearying  the  reader. 

II.    Choice  of  Words. 

Power  in  Short  Words.  —  The  pupil  should  abandon 
the  notion  that  force  is  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  big 
words.  No  one  who  has  read  much  of  English  litera- 
ture, or  who  has  read  little  observingly^  can  fail  to 
understand  that  short  words  often  contain  the  greatest 
power.  Yet  it  is  strange  how  easily  young  writers 
drop  into  the  use  of  long  words ;  and  when  once  the 
vocabulary  is  formed,  it  is  very  hard  to  be  changed. 
We  fall  insensibly  into  the  use  of  certain  words  and 
phrases;  and  they  become  part  and  parcel  of  our 
modes  of  thought  and  of  our  style.  Long  words  with 
their  full  volume  of  sound  express  some  ideas  better 
than  short  words  will  express  them ;  but  the  student  is 
urged  to  use  short  words  as  far  as  possible  without 
impairing  the  clearness  of  his  writing. 

What  has  just  been  said  refers  to  all  short  words, 
whether  derived  from  the  Latin,  French,  or  Saxon.  It 
is,  however,  from  the  last-mentioned  source  that  the 
English  that  we  speak  draws  its  best  life  and  power. 

Illustrations  from  the  Bible.  —  How  many  of  our  most 


96  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

familiar  words,  expressive  of  all  that  is  best  and  dearest, 
are  Saxon  monosyllables !  The  first  and  great  com- 
mandment speaks  in  these  words  :  — 

"  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and 
with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy 
strength." 

Our  English  version  of  the  Bible  abounds  in  passages 
full  of  the  pith  and  marrow  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  tongue ; 
some  of  them  have  a  grace  which  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  any  later  art.  Take  as  an  instance  the  parable  by 
which  Nathan  showed  to  David  as  in  a  glass  the  image 
of  his  fatal  crime  (2  Sam.  xii.  1-4).  If  you  will  count 
the  words  in  this  parable,  you  will  find  it  contains,  in  all, 
a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  words,  of  which  a  hundred 
and  thirteen  are  words  of  one  syllable. 

Wicklif,  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  puts  in  words 
of  one  syllable,  or  their  compounds,  our  Lord's  saying 
to  the  Seventy  :  — 

"  There  is  much  ripe  corn,  but  few  workmen.  Pray  ye  there- 
fore the  Lord  of  the  ripe  corn  that  he  send  workmen  into  his 
ripe  corn." 

Further  Illustrations.  —  Dr.  Gregory  says  in  his 
"Memoir  of  Robert  Hall:"  — 

"  In  one  of  my  earher  interviews  with  him,  I  used  the  word 
felicity  three  or  four  times.  He  asked,  ^Why  do  you  say 
feUcity?  Happiness  is  a  better  word,  and  genuine  English, 
coming  from  the  Saxon,  and  more  musical,  as  are  generally  the 
words  derived  from  the  Saxon.  Listen  :  "  My  heart  is  smitten 
and  withered  like  grass."  There's  plaintive  music.  Again, 
"Thou  hast  delivered  my  eyes  from  tears,  my  soul  from  death, 
and  my  feet  from  falling  :  "  all  Saxon  except  delivei-ed.  I  could 
think  of  that  word  tears  till  I  wept.     Then  again  for  another 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  97 

specimen,  almost  all  good  old  Saxon,  "Surely  goodness  and 
mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  hfe ;  and  I  will  dwell 
in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever."  '  " 

Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Progress "  owes  muck  of  its 
never  weakened  power  to  its  plain,  short  words.  You 
can  read  from  this  book  to  a  mixed  company  of  old  and 
young,  of  all  grades  of  intelligence,  and  they  will  listen  : 
the  most  illiterate,  because  it  is  so  artless  in  its  simple, 
graphic  style  and  vivid  pictures  ;  and  the  most  educated, 
because  it  fulfills  the  highest  conditions  of  art  in  its 
perfect  fidelity  to  nature  and  truth. 

In  one  of  the  interior  counties  of  New  York  State  a 
law  case  was  being  tried  which  turned  upon  the  date  at 
which  a  certain  thing  was  done.  The  judge  told  the 
jury  that  their  verdict  must  be  for  the  plaintiff  or  the 
defendant,  according  as  they  found  that  the  thing  in 
question  was  done  prior  or  subsequent  to  a  given  date. 
The  case  was  perfectly  simple ;  but  after  a  considerable 
time  the  jury  returned  to  the  court  room  and  asked  for 
further  instructions.  They  wanted  to  know  what  his 
Honor  the  Judge  meant  by  '^ prior  or  subsequent T  The 
judge  promptly  substituted  before  and  after^  and  the 
jury  agreed  on  a  verdict.  To  the  untutored  minds  of 
this  rustic  jury  the  conversion  of  such  plain  homespun 
words  as  before  and  after  into  the  Latin  derivatives  prior 
and  subsequent^  was  as  complex  a  transformation  as  that 
by  which  Dr.  Johnson  in  his  definition  of  7ietivork  turns 
it  into  "  anything  reticulated  or  decussated  at  equal  dis- 
tances, with  interstices  between  the  intersections." 

It  is  hard  to  see  why  text-books  of  rhetoric  which 
urge  simplicity  in  the  use  of  words  should  turn  chapters 
on  **  Letter  Writing"  into  directions  for  "Epistolary 
Correspondence." 

SCH.  ENG.  — 7 


98  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

III.    Order  of  Words. 

The  emphasis  given  to  a  word  or  clause  depends 
chiefly  upon  its  position  in  the  sentence.  Certain 
methods  of  arranging  words  have  become  recognized 
forms  known  by  distinct  names.  Though  often  regarded 
as  figures  of  speech,  and  classed  under  that  head  in 
works  on  rhetoric,  they  are  given  here  as  being  the 
chief  means  by  which  force  has  been  gained  in  many 
well-known  examples  from  English  literature. 

(a)  Force  is  lost  by  failure  to  make  use  of  a  natural 
climax. 

Climax  consists  in  arranging  a  series  of  thoughts 
or  ideas  so  that  the  more  important  follow  the  less 
important. 

Ex.    I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Notice  the  loss  of  force  from  disturbing  the  climax, 
even  though  the  order  in  time  be  preserved  :  — 
I  conquered  after  I  came  and  saw. 

A  sentence  in  which  the  less  important  thought 
follows  the  more  important  is  called  an  anti-climax. 

All  the  force  of  the  well-known  original  is  lost  by  the 
new  order  of  the  phrases  in  the  following  sentence :  — 

Ex.    Washington  was  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen,  and 
first  in  peace,  and  first  in  war. 

"One  of  the  best  examples  of  effective  climax  is  the 
following  extract  from  Burke's  speech  against  Warren 
Hastings :  — 

"  Therefore,  hath  it  with  all  confidence  been  ordered  by  the 
Commons  of  Great  Britain,  that  I  impeach  Warren  Hastings  of 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.     I  impeach  him  in  the  name 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  99 

of  the  Commons'  House  of  Parliament,  whose  trust  he  has 
betrayed.  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  EngUsh  nation, 
whose  ancient  honor  he  has  sulUed.  I  impeach  him  in  the 
name  of  the  people  of  India,  whose  rights  he  has  trodden  under 
foot,  and  whose  country  he  has  turned  into  a  desert.  Lastly, 
in  the  name  of  human  nature  itself,  in  the  name  of  both  sexes, 
in  the  name  of  every  age,  in  the  name  of  every  rank,  I  impeach 
the  common  enemy  and  oppressor  of  all !  " 

The  following  is  from  Shakespeare  :  — 

"  Wise  men  ne'er  sit  and  wail  their  loss, 
But  cheerly  seek  how  to  redress  their  harms. 
What  though  the  mast  be  now  blown  overboard, 
The  cable  broke,  the  holding-anchor  lost, 
And  half  our  sailors  svvallowM  in  the  flood.'' 
Yet  lives  our  pilot  still." 

On  the  same  principle  force  is  often  lost  by  adding  a 
supplementary  clause  or  phrase  after  the  main  thought 
of  the  sentence  has  been  stated. 

A  sentence  in  which  the  main  thought  is  suspended 
until  the  close  is  called  a  periodic  sentence^  or  a  period. 

A  sentence  in  which  the  main  thought  is  not  sus- 
pended until  the  close  is  called  a  loose  sentence. 

PERIODIC    SENTENCES. 

1.  When,  under  a  tropical  sun,  he  ruled  fifty  millions  of 
Asiatics,  his  hopes,  amidst  all  the  cares  of  war,  finance,  and 
legislation,  still  pointed  to  Daylesford. 

2.  In  that  temple  of  silence  and  reconciliation  where  the 
enmities  of  twenty  generations  lie  buried,  in  the  Great  Abbey 
which  has  during  many  ages  afforded  a  quiet  resting  place  to 
those  whose  minds  and  bodies  have  been  shattered  by  the  con- 
tentions of  the  Great  Hall,  the  dust  of  the  illustrious  accused 
should  have  mingled  with  the  dust  of  the  illustrious  accusers. 


lOO  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

By  altering  the  order  of  clauses,  the  foregoing  sen- 
tences become  loose  sentences ;  as  follows  :  — 

1.  His  hopes  still  pointed  to  Daylesford  amidst  all  the  cares 
of  war,  finance,  and  legislation,  when  under  a  tropical  sun  he 
ruled  fifty  millions  of  Asiatics. 

2.  The  dust  of  the  illustrious  accused  should  have  been 
mingled  with  the  dust  of  the  illustrious  accusers,  in  that  temple 
of  silence  and  reconciUation  where  the  enmities  of  twenty  gen- 
erations He  buried,  in  the  Great  Abbey  which  has  during  many 
ages  afforded  a  quiet  resting  place  to  those  whose  minds  and 
bodies  have  been  shattered  by  the  contentions  of  the  Great 
Hall. 

As  a  rule,  when  a  sentence  contains  a  thought  which 
should  be  given  special  emphasis,  greater  force  can  be 
secured  by  the  periodic  than  by  the  loose  sentence. 
This  does  not  mean  that  all  sentences  should  be  peri- 
odic, for  a  continued  succession  of  such  sentences  is 
unnatural  and  wearisome. 

EXERCISE. 

Change  the  following  sentences  from  loose  to  periodic,  and 
notice  the  gain  in  force  by  emphasis  of  the  important  thoughts:  — 

1.  I  always  prophesied  his  greatness,  from  the  first  moment 
I  saw  him,  then  a  very  young  and  unknown  man.  There  are 
no  Umits  to  his  knowledge,  on  small  subjects  as  well  as  great. 

2.  Those  who  look  on  his  character  without  favor  or  malevo- 
lence will  pronounce  that  he  was  deficient  in  the  two  great 
elements  of  all  social  virtue,  in  respect  for  the  rights  of  others, 
and  in  sympathy  for  the  sufferings  of  others. 

3.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  prevent  people  from  going  too  fast 
from  want  of  patience  when  they  are  advancing  in  anything. 

4.  I  never  would  lay  down  my  arms,  if  I  were  an  American  as 
I  am  an  Englishman,  and  foreign  troops  landed  in  my  country. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  lOI 

(b)  Force  is  lost  by  failure  to  make  use  of  antithesis. 

Antithesis  consists  in  making  similar  in  order  and  in 
construction  the  parts  of  a  sentence  which  contain  con- 
trasted thoughts. 
Ex.    The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs  himself. 

Notice  the  loss  of  force  from  abandoning  the  antithesis. 

The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  but  the  miser  gets  no  good  out  of 
his  money. 

EXAMPLES   OF  ANTITHESIS. 

1.  Fools  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 

2.  When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  we  leave 
them. 

3.  A  proverb  is  the  wisdom  of  many  and  the  wit  of  one. 

4.  He  lives  in  fame  that  dies  in  virtue's  cause. 

(c)  Force  is  sometimes  lost  by  failure  to  make  use  of  a 
possible  inversion. 

Inversion  consists  in  putting  a  v^ord  or  phrase  out  of 
its  natural  order  for  the  sake  of  rhetorical  effect. 

Ex.   Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

Visibly  through  his  garden  walketh  God. 

These  are  more  forcible  sentences  than  if  they  were  in 
the  natural  order  of  subject  first,  and  predicate  last;  as. — 

Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great. 

God  walketh  visibly  through  his  garden. 

Notice  that  in  one  of  the  original  examples  emphasis 
is  secured  by  placing  the  adjective  first,  in  the  other 
sentence  emphasis  is  gained  by  placing  the  noun  last. 
It  is  not  the  position  of  the  first  or  last  words  that  em- 
phasizes them,  but  the  fact  that,  being  out  of  their  nat- 
ural position,  the  reader  comes  upon  them  unexpectedly. 


102  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

IV.    Form  of  the  Sentence. 

Force  is  often  gained  by  putting  a  sentence  in  the  inter- 
rogative or  exclamatory  form  when  the  object  is  to  make 
a  declarative  statement. 

Doth  Job  serve  God  for  naught? 
How  wonderful  is  Death, 
Death  and  his  brother,  Sleep! 
Oh  that  I  were  a  man ! 

are  more  forcible  ways  of  saying :  — 

Job  makes  something  out  of  serving  God. 

Death  is  very  wonderful,  and  so  is  his  brother,  Sleep. 

I  wish  I  were  a  man. 

Many  verses  of  the  Book  of  Job  consist  of  interroga- 
tive sentences  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Ex.    Doth  the  wild  ass  bray  when  he  hath  grass  ?  or  loweth  the 

ox  over  his  fodder  ? 
Can  that  which  is  unsavory  be  eaten  without  salt?   or  is 

there  any  taste  in  the  white  of  an  ^gg^. 
Is  my  strength  the  strength  of  stones?  or  is  my  flesh  of 

brass  ? 
Can  the  rush  grow  up  without  mire?    Can  the  flag  grow 

without  water? 
Should  a  wise  man  utter  vain  knowledge,  and  fill  his  belly 

with  the  east  wind? 

The  Bible  abounds  also  in  exclamatory  sentences  used 
for  making  forcible  assertions. 

Ex.    How  amiable  are  thy  tabernacles,  O  Lord  of  Hosts  ! 
How  terrible  art  thou  in  all  thy  works  ! 

The  exclamatory  form  is  frequently  used  for  the 
expression  of  passionate  thought. 

Ex.   Oh,  that  this  too,  too  solid  flesh  would  melt,  thaw,  and 
resolve  itself  into  a  dew ! 
Alas,  poor  Coimtry ! 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  103 

EXAMPLES. 

Show  how  greater  force  might  be  given  to  the  expression 
of  the  thought  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  This  is  what  Christianity  has  done  for  us.  This  is  what 
it  has  done  for  you.     This  is  what  it  has  done  for  me. 

2.  He  gathered  them  up  together  in  one  place. 

3.  The  accepted  time  is  now. 

4.  I  have  no  silver  and  gold. 

5.  The  highest  mountains  were  the  ones  selected  for  their 
dwelling. 

6.  To  bind  a  Roman  citizen  is  an  outrage ;  to  put  him  to 
death  by  crucifixion  —  what  shall  I  call  it?  To  scourge  him  is 
an  atrocious  crime,  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  parricide. 

7.  When  reason  is  against  a  man,  he  will  not  be  reasonable. 

8.  I  do  not  live  to  eat,  but  I  take  my  meals  for  the  sake 
of  keeping  alive. 

9.  Every  one  was  dressed  in  his  best  suit  of  clothes. 

10.  The  account  of  his  life  must  necessarily  be  a  fragmen- 
tary one. 

11.  All  Lawrenceville  is  happy  and  excited,  and  getting  in 
readiness  for  the  event. 

1 2 .  She  looked  perfectly  contented,  and  was  eating  ice-cream . 

13.  Paul,  before  his  conversion,  led  a  life  of  sin  and  badness. 

14.  He  organized  and  started  the  great  and  excellent  work 
of  carrying  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles. 

15.  There  will  be  no  peace  for  England  until  you  come 
back  to  that  system. 

16.  What  is  liberty  without  virtue  and  without  wisdom?  It 
is  the  greatest  of  all  evils,  for  it  is  madness,  vice,  and  folly. 

1 7.  Leave  America  to  tax  herself,  if  she  has  taxable  matter 
in  her. 

18.  Now  where  is  the  revenue  which  is  to  do  all  these  mighty 
things  ?  Five  sixths  repealed  —  lost  forever  —  gone  —  sunk  — 
abandoned ! 


104  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

HARMONY. 

Avoid  Repetition.  —  We  have  already  referred  to  the 
repetition  of  the  same  sound  or  word.  Though  Ten- 
nyson has  employed  one  word  five  or  six  times  in  as 
many  lines  of  poetry,  it  does  not  follow  that  repetition 
is  always  pleasing  to  the  ear.  On  the  contrary,  the 
continued  recurrence  of  the  same  sound  is  generally 
disagreeable,  and  should  be  avoided  when  possible  to 
do  so  without  destroying  the  sense.  If  a  writer  has 
inadvertently  used  the  same  word  three  or  four  times  in 
a  few  lines,  probably  the  clearness  of  what  he  has 
written  would  be  improved  by  substituting  a  different 
word  at  least  once  or  twice. 

(a)  When  nothing  is  gained  in  clearness  or  rhetorical 
effect^  avoid  frequently  repeating  the  same  sound  or  word. 

Exception.  —  If,  however,  there  is  only  one  word  that 
will  express  the  meaning,  do  not  be  afraid  to  repeat  this 
word  as  often  as  you  wish  to  repeat  the  idea  it  ex- 
presses. In  the  following  sentence  the  word  awful  is 
used  three  times.  In  two  instances  the  sense  may  be 
improved  by  substituting  another  word.  That  this 
change  of  wording  will  greatly  improve  the  sound  of 
the  sentence  may  be  made  evident  by  reading  the  two 
examples  aloud :  — 

Violation.  —  It  was  an  awful  night  in  the  cab  of  the  engine ;  but 
the  engineer  had  to  make  time  in  spite  of  the  awful  wind  and  the 
blinding  rain  which  obscured  his  vision,  as  he  peered  from  the 
engine  window  into  the  awful  darkness  beyond. 

Correction.  —  It  was  a  dreary  night  in  the  cab  of  the  locomotive ; 
but  the  engineer  had  to  make  good  time  in  spite  of  the  terrific  wind 
and  the  blinding  rain  which  obscured  his  vision,  as  he  peered  from 
the  cab  window  into  the  awfiil  darkness  beyond. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  105 


EXAMPLES    FOR    CORRECTION. 

1.  The  heaps  of  refuse  in  the  streets,  especially  the  up-town 
streets,  were  frozen  solid,  and  almost  defied  the  attacks  of  the 
gangs  of  sons  of  sunny  Italy. 

2.  God  hides  nothing  from  us.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact 
that  we  are  not  able  to  understand  all  things.  The  Prophets 
were  told  all  things  that  they  might  tell  us,  though  many  things 
are  beyond  our  comprehension. 

3.  A  life  of  St.  Paul  must  be  fragmentary  owing  to  the  fact 
that  very  few  facts  are  given  in  The  Acts.  The  account  of  his 
life  as  found  in  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  begins  a  long  time 
after  his  birth,  and  ends  some  time  before  his  death ;  at  the 
same  time,  however,  the  facts  from  the  time  of  his  birth  to  the 
time  we  last  hear  of  him  are  given  in  minute  detail. 

4.  They  sail  to  Salamis  on  the  Island  of  Cyprus  where  they 
preach  in  the  synagogues ;  from  there  they  cross  to  Paphos, 
where  the  sorcerer  Elymas  is  struck  blind.  Then  they  cross 
to  Perga,  where  John  leaves  them.  Next  they  go  to  Antioch 
in  Pisidia,  where  they  make  many  converts ;  but  they  are 
driven  from  the  city  by  the  rulers,  and  they  go  to  Iconium, 
where  "they  are  again  driven  out  and  flee  to  Lystra. 

(b)  The  harmony  of  a  sentence  is  often  destroyed  by  a 
combination  of  words  that  will  not  glide  smoothly  from 
the  tongue. 

Examples.  —  Nursery  literature  provides  examples  of 
sentences  and  phrases  purposely  constructed  so  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  repeat  them  correctly  several 
times  in  rapid  succession. 

Ex.  "  Peter  Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers,"  etc. ;  or, 
"  The  cat  ran  over  the  roof  of  a  house  with  a  piece  of  red 
raw  liver  in  its  mouth,"  '^  Good  blood,  bad  blood,  black  bot- 
tles, blue  blotter." 


I06  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Often,  however,  a  sentence  is  difficult  to  pronounce, 
though  it  has  not  been  written  with  that  end  in  view. 
The  translators  of  the  Bible  have  made  a  combination 
of  words  that  requires  a  flexible  tongue  to  be  spoken 
rapidly:  "Philip  saith  unto  him,  Lord,  show  us  the 
Father  and  it  sufficeth  us."  We  will  not,  however, 
suggest  an  improvement. 

Practical  Suggestion.  —  Often  in  our  reading  we 
come  across  similar  combinations,  but  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  classify  them  as  violations  of  specific  rules. 
Accordingly,  our  suggestion  under  this  head  is  for  the 
writer  to  read  aloud  what  he  has  written^  and  notice 
the  sound,  as  well  as  the  sense.  If  the  sound  is  not 
agreeable,  or  if  the  matter  is  difficult  to  read,  alter  it 
so  as  to  remove  the  objection. 

Several  text-books  of  rhetoric  instruct  the  pupil  to 
construct  his  sentences  so  that  there  shall  be  "  a  pleas- 
ing cadence,"  or  fall  of  the  voice,  at  the  close ;  and  one 
suggests  that  the  last  word  of  a  sentence  should  have 
an  alternation  of  long  and  short  syllables,  or  at  least 
that  the  next  to  the  last  should  be  long.  But  though  we 
may  imagine  that  such  an  arrangement  is  the  cause  of 
beauty  in  one  melodious  sentence,  mechanical  imitation 
would  be  utterly  unsuccessful.  Persian  rugs  cannot  be 
made  by  steam-power  looms;  nor  can  a  schoolboy  be 
taught  to  write  musically,  except  by  bringing  out  the 
music  within  him,  by  his  own  efforts  at  reading  and 
writing.  More  inspiration  may  be  gained  from  reading 
the  best  productions  of  famous  authors  than  by  correct- 
ing the  faults  of  poor  writers.  At  the  close  of  this 
chapter,  several  extracts  are  given  in  order  that  the 
student  may  see  into  what  power  and  melody  genius 
has  combined  the  words  of  our  language. 


CLEARNESS,   FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  107 

Correction  of  errors  in  the  use  of  words  and  in  gram- 
matical construction  can  be  made  within  the  limits  of 
a  single  sentence.  In  order  to  improve  one's  work  in 
clearness,  force,  and  harmony,  the  view  taken  must  be 
more  extended ;  and  this  fact  leads  us  to  the  discussion 
of  the  paragraph. 

THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Object  and  Definition.  —  An  earnest  speaker  will  pause 
after  each  group  of  sentences  bearing  on  a  single  point, 
in  order  that  his  listeners  may  fully  comprehend  that 
point  before  considering  the  next.  In  the  same  way, 
the  clearness  and  effectiveness  of  written  matter  may 
be  increased  by  indicating  where  the  discussion  of  a 
specific  topic  ends  and  the  discussion  of  the  next  begins. 

A  distinct  szibdivision  of  writing  which  relates  to  a 
particular  pointy  whether  consisting  of  one  or  of  many 
sentefices,  is  called  a  paragraph^  and  should  be  indicated 
by  beginning  its  first  sentence  on  a  new  line  and  more 
than  the  usual  distance  from  the  margin. 

Important  Caution.  —  There  are  no  definite  rules  as 
to  the  length  and  construction  of  paragraphs,  and  the 
consequent  indifference  with  which  untrained  writers 
regard  this  important  element  of  composition  warrants 
an  appeal  here  for  special  effort  towards  understanding 
the  principles  of  the  paragraph,  and  applying  them  in 
all  one's  writing. 

I.    Length. 

Determined  by  Subdivision  of  Theme. — The  number 
of  paragraphs  in  any  written  matter,  and  their  length, 
are  determined  by  the  number  of  points  which  the 
writer  wishes  to  make  distinct,  and  the  number  of  words 
or  sentences  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  each. 


I08  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

It  is  possible  to  carry  the  subdivision  of  one's  theme 
to  such  an  extent  that  each  sentence  shall  be  a  separate 
paragraph,  or  to  group  a  large  number  of  sentences 
about  one  central  thought. 

Varies  in  Different  Kinds  of  Composition. — The  extent 
to  which  this  subdivision  into  separate  points  should  be 
carried  depends  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  compo- 
sition. A  lecturer  explaining  a  hard  subject  must  go 
slowly  and  make  frequent  pauses,  in  order  to  give  his 
listeners  time  to  understand  him  as  he  proceeds.  In  a 
text-book  or  any  writing  which  requires  continual  reason- 
ing, and  where  each  thought  must  be  fully  compre- 
hended in  order  to  understand  the  main  subject,  it  is 
wise  to  make  short  paragraphs. 

A  schoolbook  in  unbroken  pages  looks  hard,  and  is 
hard,  because  the  reader  is  not  led  to  pause  and  reflect, 
nor  shown  where  it  is  most  profitable  to  do  so. 

A  story,  a  description,  or  other  matter  easy  of  com- 
prehension, need  not  be  so  frequently  broken  into  para- 
graphs. (See  any  of  the  prose  illustrative  extracts  in 
this  book.) 

Beginning  of  New  Paragraph. — Though  it  may  often 
be  a  matter  of  debate  whether  to  throw  two  paragraphs 
into  one  or  to  cut  one  into  two,  it  is  seldom  difficult  to 
tell  whether  a  given  sentence  belongs  at  the  end  of  one 
paragraph  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  next.  The  new 
paragraph  should  begin  where  there  is  a  change  in  the 
specific  topic. 

A  little  practice  in  following  this  simple  direction  will 
go  far  toward  solving  the  supposed  difficulties  of  correct 
paragraphing. 

In  writing  a  conversation,  a  change  of  speaker  is 
indicated  by  a  change  of  paragraph. 


CLEARNESS,   FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  109 

II.   Construction. 

No  Absolute  Rules.  —  There  are  no  rules  for  the  con- 
struction of  paragraphs  similar  to  those  for  the  con- 
struction of  sentences.  Nevertheless,  the  construction 
of  a  paragraph  can  be  considered  critically. 

Unit  of  Criticism.  —  School  pupils  will  do  well  to  criti- 
cise their  work  by  paragraphs ;  and  in  this  critical 
survey,  besides  seeking  to  gain  clearness,  force,  and 
harmony  in  the  manner  suggested  in  this  chapter,  the 
writer  should  see  that  all  the  parts  of  each  paragraph 
bear  on  the  main  subject,  and  that  together  they  fully 
express  the  thought  in  mind.  Unless  there  is  some 
good  reason  to  the  contrary,  the  principle  of  climax 
(see  p.  98)  should  be  observed. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  It  would  violate  the  plan  of 
this  book  to  give  specific  directions  for  the  construction 
of  paragraphs  according  to  an  ideal  arrangement.  The 
object  here  is  to  explain  the  fundamental  principles  of 
the  paragraph,  to  call  the  pupil's  attention  to  its  impor- 
tance as  a  basis  for  critical  revision,  to  urge  him  to 
review  each  paragraph  as  it  is  written,  and,  if  it  is  not 
satisfactory  to  himself,  to  correct  it  by  rearranging  its 
parts,  striking  out  what  is  superfluous,  and  adding  what 
is  necessary  to  make  it  complete. 

A  later  revision  should  be  made  of  the  completed 
work,  and  will  generally  result  in  changing  the  relative 
position  of  some  of  the  paragraphs,  merging  some  to- 
gether, or  condensing  the  whole  of  one  into  a  single 
sentence,  and  making  it  part  of  another  paragraph. 
Such  revision,  however,  should  be  made  more  in  the 
light  of  what  the  writer  wishes  to  say  than  in  regard  to 
correct  expression. 


no  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

EXTRACTS    TO    ILLUSTRATE    FORCE    AND    HARMONY. 

Portia's  plea  for  mercy. 

[from  "the  merchant  of  VENICE,"  ACT  IV,,   SCENE  I.] 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain'd, 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven 

Upon  the  place  beneath  :  it  is  twice  bless'd  ; 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives  and  him  that  takes : 

'Tis  mightiest  in  the  mightiest :  it  becomes 

The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown ; 

His  scepter  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power, 

The  attribute  to  awe  and  majesty, 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings ; 

But  mercy  is  above  this  sceptered  sway ; 

It  is  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  kings, 

It  is  an  attribute  to  God  himself; 

And  earthly  power  doth  then  show  likest  God's, 

When  mercy  seasons  justice.     Therefore,  Jew, 

Though  justice  be  thy  plea,  consider  this, 

That,  in  the  course  of  justice,  none  of  us 

Should  see  salvation :  we  do  pray  for  mercy ; 

And  that  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all  to  render 

The  deeds  of  mercy. 

THE   CLOUD. 


I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers, 

From  the  seas  and  the  streams ; 
I  bear  light  shade  for  the  leaves  when  laid 

In  their  noonday  dreams. 
From  my  wings  are  shaken  the  dews  that  waken 

The  sweet  buds  every  one, 
When  rocked  to  rest  on  their  mother's  breast, 

As  she  dances  about  the  sun. 
I  wield  the  flail  of  the  lashing  hail. 

And  whiten  the  green  plains  under ; 
And  then  again  I  dissolve  it  in  rain, 

And  laugh  as  I  pass  in  thunder. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  Ill 

I  sift  the  snow  on  the  mountains  below, 

And  their  great  pines  groan  aghast ; 
And  all  the  night  'tis  my  pillow  white, 

While  I  sleep  in  the  arms  of  the  blast. 
Sublime  on  the  towers  of  my  skyey  bowers 

Lightning  my  pilot  sits  ; 
In  a  cavern  under  is  fettered  the  thunder, 

It  struggles  and  howls  at  fits  ; 
Over  earth  and  ocean,  with  gentle  motion, 

This  pilot  is  guiding  me. 
Lured  by  the  love  of  the  genii  that  move 

In  the  depths  of  the  purple  sea ; 
Over  the  rills  and  the  crags  and  the  hills, 

Over  the  lakes  and  the  plains, 
Wherever  he  dream  under  mountain  or  stream 

The  spirit  he  loves  remains  ; 
And  I  all  the  while  bask  in  heaven's  blue  smile, 

Whilst  he  is  dissolving  in  rains. 


The  sanguine  sunrise,  with  his  meteor  eyes, 

And  his  burning  plumes  outspread, 
Leaps  on  the  back  of  my  sailing  rack. 

When  the  morning-star  shines  dead. 
As  on  the  jag  of  a  mountain-crag, 

Which  an  earthquake  rocks  and  swings. 
An  eagle  alit  one  moment  may  sit 

In  the  light  of  its  golden  wings. 
And,  when  sunset  may  breathe  from  the  lit  sea  beneath 

Its  ardors  of  rest  and  of  love. 
And  the  crimson  pall  of  eve  may  fall 

From  the  depth  of  heaven  above, 
With  wings  folded  I  rest  on  mine  airy  nest, 

As  still  as  a  brooding  dove. 


That  orbed  maiden  with  white  fire  laden, 
Whom  mortals  call  the  Moon, 

Glides  glimmering  o'er  my  fleece-like  floor, 
By  the  midnight  breezes  strewn ; 


112  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

And,  wherever  the  beat  of  her  unseen  feet, 

Which  only  the  angels  hear, 
May  have  broken  the  woof  of  my  tent's  thin  roof, 

The  stars  peep  behind  her  and  peer. 
And  I  laugh  to  see  them  whirl  and  flee 

Like  a  swarm  of  golden  bees. 
When  I  widen  the  rent  in  my  wind-built  tent, 

Till  the  calm  rivers,  lakes,  and  seas. 
Like  strips  of  the  sky  fallen  through  me  on  high. 

Are  each  paved  with  the  moon  and  these. 

I  bind  the  sun's  throne  with  a  burning  zone, 

And  the  moon's  with  a  girdle  of  pearl ; 
The  volcanoes  are  dim,  and  the  stars  reel  and  swim, 

When  the  whirlwinds  my  banner  unfurl. 
From  cape  to  cape,  with  a  bridge-like  shape, 

Over  a  torrent  sea, 
Sunbeam-proof,  I  hang  like  a  roof. 

The  mountains  its  columns  be. 
The  triumphal  arch  through  which  I  march 

With  hurricane,  fire,  and  snow. 
When  the  powers  of  the  air  are  chained  to  my  chair. 

Is  the  million-colored  bow ; 
The  sphere-fire  above  its  soft  colors  wove, 

While  the  moist  earth  was  laughing  below. 

I  am  the  daughter  of  the  earth  and  water, 

And  the  nursling  of  the  sky  ; 
I  pass  through  the  pores  of  the  ocean  and  shores ; 

I  change,  but  I  cannot  die. 
For  after  the  rain,  when,  with  never  a  stain 

The  pavilion  of  heaven  is  bare. 
And  the  winds  and  sunbeams  with  their  convex  gleams 

Build  up  the  blue  dome  of  air, 
I  silently  laugh  at  my  own  cenotaph. 

And  out  of  the  caverns  of  rain. 
Like  a  child  from  the  womb,  like  a  ghost  from  the  tomb, 

I  arise,  and  unbuild  it  again. 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  II3 

[from   DE  QUINCEY's   "ENGLISH   MAIL-COACH."] 

Passion  of  sudden  death  !  that  once  in  youth  I  read  and 
interpreted  by  the  shadows  of  thy  averted  signs  —  rapture  of 
panic  taking  the  shape  (which  amongst  tombs  in  churches  I 
have  seen)  of  woman  bursting  her  sepulchral  bonds  —  of 
woman's  Ionic  form  bending  forward  from  the  ruins  of  her 
grave  with  arching  foot,  with  eyes  upraised,  with  clasped 
adoring  hands  —  waiting,  watching,  trembling,  praying  for  the 
trumpet's  call  to  rise  from  dust  forever  !  Ah,  vision  too  fearful 
of  shuddering  humanity  on  the  brink  of  almighty  abysses  !  — 
vision  that  didst  start  back,  that  didst  reel  away,  hke  a  shrivel- 
ing scroll  from  before  the  wrath  of  fire  racing  on  the  wings  of 
the  wind  !  Epilepsy  so  brief  of  horror,  wherefore  is  it  that 
thou  canst  not  die  ?  Passing  so  suddenly  into  darkness,  where- 
fore is  it  that  still  thou  sheddest  thy  sad  funeral  blights  upon 
the  gorgeous  mosaics  of  dreams  ?  Fragment  of  music  too  pas- 
sionate, heard  once,  and  heard  no  more,  what  aileth  thee,  that 
thy  deep  rolling  chords  come  up  at  intervals  through  all  the 
worlds  of  sleep,  and  after  thirty  years  have  lost  no  element  of 
horror  ? 


Immediately,  in  trance,  I  was  carried  over  land  and  sea  to 
some  distant  kingdom,  and  placed  upon  a  triumphal  car, 
amongst  companions  crowned  with  laurel.  The  darkness  of 
gathering  midnight  brooding  over  all  the  land,  hid  from  us  the 
mighty  crowds  that  were  weaving  restlessly  about  ourselves  as 
a  center  :  we  heard  them,  but  saw  them  not.  Tidings  had 
arrived  within  an  hour,  of  a  grandeur  that  measured  itself 
against  centuries ;  too  full  of  pathos  they  were,  too  full  of 
joy,  to  utter  themselves  by  other  language  than  by  tears,  by 
restless  anthems,  and  Te  Deums  reverberated  from  the  choirs 
and  orchestras  of  earth.     These  tidings  we  that  sat  upon  the 

SCH.  ENG. — 8 


114  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

laureled  car  had  it  for  our  privilege  to  publish  amongst  all 
nations.  And  already,  by  signs  audible  through  the  darkness, 
by  snortings  and  tramplings,  our  angry  horses,  that  knew  no 
fear  of  fleshly  weariness,  upbraided  us  with  delay.  Wherefore 
was  it  that  we  delayed?  We  waited  for  a  secret  word,  that 
should  bear  witness  to  the  hope  of  nations,  as  now  accom- 
plished forever.  At  midnight  the  secret  word  arrived ;  which 
word  was  —  Waterloo  and  recovered  Christendom  !  The 
dreadful  word  shone  by  its  own  light ;  before  us  it  went ;  high 
above  our  leaders'  heads  it  rode,  and  spread  a  golden  light 
over  the  paths  which  we  traversed.  Every  city  at  the  presence 
of  the  secret  word  threw  open  its  gates.  The  rivers  were  con- 
scious as  we  crossed.  All  the  forests,  as  we  ran  along  their 
margins,  shivered  in  homage  to  the  secret  word.  And  the 
darkness  comprehended  it. 

Two  hours  after  midnight  we  approached  a  mighty  Minster. 
Its  gates,  which  rose  to  the  clouds,  were  closed.  But  when 
the  dreadful  word,  that  rode  before  us,  reached  them  with  its 
golden  light,  silently  they  moved  back  upon  their  hinges ;  and 
at  a  flying  gallop  our  equipage  entered  the  grand  aisle  of  the 
cathedral.  Headlong  was  our  pace ;  and  at  every  altar,  in 
the  little  chapels  and  oratories  to  the  right  hand  and  left  of 
our  course,  the  lamps,  dying  or  sickening,  kindled  anew  in 
sympathy  with  the  secret  word  that  was  flying  past.  Forty 
leagues  we  might  have  run  in  the  cathedral,  and  as  yet  no 
strength  of  morning  light  had  reached  us,  when  before  us  we 
saw  the  aerial  galleries  of  organ  and  choir.  Every  pinnacle  of 
the  fretwork,  every  station  of  advantage  amongst  the  traceries, 
was  crested  by  white-robed  choristers,  that  sang  deliverance  : 
that  wept  no  more  tears,  as  once  their  fathers  had  wept  j  but 
at  intervals  that  sang  together  to  the  generations,  saying,  — 

"  Chant  the  deliverer's  praise  in  every  tongue," 
and  receiving  answers  from  afar,  — 

"  Such  as  once  in  heaven  and  earth  were  sung." 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  II5 

And  of  their  chanting  was  no  end ;  of  our  headlong  pace  was 
neither  pause  nor  slackening. 

Thus,  as  we  ran  Hke  torrents  —  thus,  as  we  swept  with  bridal 
rapture  over  the  Campo  Santo  of  the  cathedral  graves  —  sud- 
denly we  became  aware  of  a  vast  necropoHs  rising  upon  the 
far-off  horizon  —  a  city  of  sepulchers,  built  within  the  saintly 
cathedral  for  the  warrior  dead  that  rested  from  their  feuds  on 
earth.  Of  purple  granite  was  the  necropolis ;  yet,  in  the  first 
minute,  it  lay  like  a  purple  stain  upon  the  horizon,  so  mighty 
was  the  distance.  In  the  second  minute  it  trembled  through 
many  changes,  growing  into  terraces  and  towers  of  wondrous 
altitude,  so  mighty  was  the  space.  In  the  third  minute  already, 
with  our  dreadful  gallop,  we  were  entering  its  suburbs.  Vast 
sarcophagi  rose  on  every  side,  having  towers  and  turrets  that, 
upon  the  Hmits  of  the  central  aisle,  strode  forward  with  haughty 
intrusion,  that  ran  back  with  mighty  shadows  into  answering 
recesses.  Every  sarcophagus  showed  many  bas-reliefs  —  bas- 
reliefs  of  battles  and  of  battlefields  ;  battles  from  forgotten 
ages  —  battles  from  yesterday  —  battlefields  that,  long  since, 
nature  had  healed  and  reconciled  to  herself  with  the  sweet 
oblivion  of  flowers  —  battlefields  that  were  yet  angry  and 
crimson  with  carnage.  Where  the  terraces  ran,  there  did  we 
run ;  where  the  towers  curved,  there  did  we  curve.  With  the 
flight  of  swallows  our  horses  swept  round  every  angle.  Like 
rivers  in  flood,  wheeling  round  headlands  —  like  hurricanes 
that  ride  into  the  secrets  of  forests  —  faster  than  ever  light 
unwove  the  mazes  of  darkness,  our  flying  equipage  carried 
earthly  passions,  kindled  warrior  instincts,  amongst  the  dust 
that  lay  around  us  —  dust  oftentimes  of  our  noble  fathers  that 
had  slept  in  God  from  Cr^cy  to  Trafalgar.  And  now  had  we 
reached  the  last  sarcophagus,  now  were  we  abreast  of  the  last 
bas-relief,  already  had  we  recovered  the  arrow-like  flight  of  the 
inimitable  central  aisle,  when  coming  up  this  aisle  to  meet  us 
we  beheld  afar  off  a  female  child,  that  rode  in  a  carriage  as 
frail  as  flowers.     The  mists,  that  went  before  her,  hid  the  fawns 


Il6  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

that  drew  her,  but  could  not  hide  the  shells  and  tropic  flowers 
with  which  she  played  —  but  could  not  hide  the  lovely  smiles 
by  which  she  uttered  her  trust  in  the  mighty  cathedral,  and 
in  the  cherubim  that  looked  down  upon  her  from  the  mighty 
shafts  of  its  pillars.  Face  to  face  she  was  meeting  us  ;  face  to 
face  she  rode,  as  if  danger  there  were  none.  "  O  baby  ! " 
I  exclaimed,  "  shalt  thou  be  the  ransom  for  Waterloo  ?  Must 
we,  that  carry  tidings  of  great  joy  to  every  people,  be  messen- 
gers of  ruin  to  thee  !  "  In  horror  I  rose  at  the  thought ;  but 
then  also,  in  horror  at  the  thought,  rose  one  that  was  sculptured 
on  a  bas-relief — a  dying  trumpeter.  Solemnly  from  the  field 
of  battle  he  rose  to  his  feet ;  and,  unslinging  his  stony  trumpet, 
carried  it,  in  his  dying  anguish,  to  his  stony  lips  —  sounding 
once,  and  yet  once  again,  proclamation  that,  in  //ly  ears,  O 
baby !  spoke  from  the  battlements  of  death.  Immediately 
deep  shadows  fell  between  us  and  aboriginal  silence.  The 
choir  had  ceased  to  sing.  The  hoofs  of  our  horses,  the  dread- 
ful rattle  of  our  harness,  the  groaning  of  our  wheels,  alarmed 
the  graves  no  more.  By  horror  the  bas-relief  had  been  unlocked 
into  life.  By  horror  we,  that  were  so  full  of  life,  we  men  and 
our  horses,  with  their  fiery  fore  legs  rising  in  mid-air  to  their 
everlasting  gallop,  were  frozen  to  a  bas-relief.  Then  a  third 
time  the  trumpet  sounded ;  the  seals  were  taken  off  all  pulses ; 
life,  and  the  frenzy  of  life,  tore  into  their  channels  again ;  again 
the  choir  burst  forth  in  sunny  grandeur,  as  from  the  muffling  of 
storms  and  darkness ;  again  the  thunderings  of  our  horses 
carried  temptation  into  the  graves.  One  cry  burst  from  our 
lips,  as  the  clouds,  drawing  off  from  the  aisle,  showed  it  empty 
before  us  —  "  Whither  has  the  infant  fled  ?  —  is  the  young  child 
caught  up  to  God?  "  Lo  !  afar  off,  in  a  vast  recess,  rose  three 
mighty  windows  to  the  clouds  ;  and,  on  a  level  with  their  sum- 
mits, at  height  insuperable  to  man,  rose  an  altar  of  purest 
alabaster.  On  its  eastern  face  was  trembling  a  crimson  glory. 
A  glory  was  it  from  the  reddening  dawn  that  now  streamed 
through  the  windows?     Was  it  from  the  crimson  robes  of  the 


CLEARNESS,  FORCE,  AND   HARMONY.  I17 

martyrs  painted  on  the  windows?  Was  it  from  the  bloody 
bas-reUefs  of  earth?  There,  suddenly,  within  that  crimson 
radiance,  rose  the  apparition  oi  a  woman's  head,  and  then  of 
a  woman's  figure.  The  child  it  was  —  grown  up  to  woman's 
height.  Clinging  to  the  horns  of  the  altar,  voiceless  she  stood 
—  sinking,  rising,  raving,  despairing;  and  behind  the  volume 
of  incense,  that,  night  and  day,  streamed  upwards  from  the 
altar,  dimly  was  seen  the  fiery  font,  and  the  shadow  of  that 
dreadful  being  who  should  have  baptized  her  with  the  baptism 
of  death.  But  by  her  side  was  kneeling  her  better  angel,  that 
hid  his  face  with  wings ;  that  wept  and  pleaded  for  her;  that 
prayed  when  she  could  not ;  that  fought  with  Heaven  by  tears 
for  her  deliverance ;  which  also,  as  he  raised  his  immortal 
countenance  from  his  wings,  I  saw,  by  the  glory  in  his  eye, 
that  from  Heaven  he  had  won  at  last. 

Then  was  completed  the  passion  of  the  mighty  fugue.  The 
golden  tubes  of  the  organ,  which  as  yet  had  but  muttered  at 
intervals  —  gleaming  amongst  clouds  and  surges  of  incense  — 
threw  up,  as  from  fountains  unfathomable,  columns  of  heart- 
shattering  music.  Choir  and  anti-choir  were  filling  fast  with 
unknown  voices.  Thou  also.  Dying  Trumpeter  !  —  with  thy 
love  that  was  victorious,  and  thy  anguish  that  was  finishing  — 
didst  enter  the  tumult ;  trumpet  and  echo  —  farewell  love  and 
farewell  anguish  —  rang  through  the  dreadful  sanctus.  Oh, 
darkness  of  the  grave  !  that  from  the  crimson  altar  and  from 
the  fiery  font  wert  visited  and  searched  by  the  eifulgence  in 
the  angel's  eye  —  were  these  indeed  thy  children  ?  Pomps  of 
life,  that,  from  the  burials  of  centuries,  rose  again  to  the  voice 
of  perfect  joy,  did  ye  indeed  mingle  with  the  festivals  of  Death? 
Lo  !  as  I  looked  back  for  seventy  leagues  through  the  mighty 
cathedral,  I  saw  the  quick  and  the  dead  that  sang  together  to 
God,  together  that  sang  to  the  generations  of  man.  All  the 
hosts  of  jubilation,  like  armies  that  ride  in  pursuit,  moved  with 
one  step.  Us,  that,  with  laureled  heads,  were  passing  from  the 
cathedral,  they  overtook,  and,  as  with  a  garment,  they  wrapped 


Il8  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

us  round  with  thunders  greater  than  our  own.  As  brothers  we 
moved  together ;  to  the  dawn  that  advanced  —  to  the  stars 
that  fled ;  rendering  thanks  to  God  in  the  highest  —  that, 
having  hid  His  face  through  one  generation  behind  thick  clouds 
of  War,  once  again  was  ascending  —  from  the  Campo  Santo  of 
Waterloo  was  ascending  —  in  the  visions  of  Peace  ;  rendering 
thanks  for  thee,  young  girl  !  whom,  having  overshadowed  with 
His  ineffable  passion  of  death,  suddenly  did  God  relent ;  suf- 
fered thy  angel  to  turn  aside  His  arm ;  and  even  in  thee,  sister 
unknown  !  shown  to  me  for  a  moment  only  to  be  hidden  for- 
ever, found  an  occasion  to  glorify  His  goodness.  A  thousand 
times,  amongst  the  phantoms  of  sleep,  have  I  seen  thee  enter- 
ing the  gates  of  the  golden-dawn  —  with  the  secret  word  riding 
before  thee  —  with  the  armies  of  the  grave  behind  thee  ;  seen 
thee,  sinking,  rising,  raving,  despairing;  a  thousand  times  in 
the  worlds  of  sleep  have  seen  thee  followed  by  God's  angel 
through  storms ;  through  desert  seas ;  through  the  darkness  of 
quicksands ;  through  dreams,  and  the  dreadful  revelations  that 
are  in  dreams  —  only  that  at  the  last,  with  one  sling  of  His 
victorious  arm.  He  might  snatch  thee  back  from  ruin,  and 
might  emblazon  in  thy  deliverance  the  endless  resurrections  of 
His  love ! 


CHAPTER  V. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

Illustration  and  Definition.  —  The  rules  given  in  the 
previous  chapter  have  dealt  principally  with  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words,  without  suggesting  any  sig- 
nificant change  in  the  method  of  expressing  thought. 
But  before  leaving  the  subject  of  clearness  and  force, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  acquaint  the  pupil  with  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  clearer,  stronger,  and  more  attractive  way 
of  expressing  our  thoughts  than  by  the  literal  statement 
of  what  we  have  in  mind.  When  David  said,  —  ''  The 
righteous  shall  flourish  like  the  palm  tree :  he  shall  grow 
like  a  cedar  in  Lebanon,"  —  he  gave  a  clearer  impression 
of  the  blessings  of  the  righteous  than  he  could  possibly 
have  given  in  the  same  number  of  words  used  literally. 

Indeed,  it  may  be  often  more  forcible  to  say  the 
opposite  of  what  we  mean,  and  to  exhibit  the  remote- 
ness of  that  statement  from  the  truth,  than  to  make  a 
simple  statement  of  what  is  true.  It  is  a  more  scathing 
rebuke  to  call  a  man  an  honorable  gentleman  in  sarcasm 
than  to  call  him  a  mean  rowdy  in  truth.  We  are  so 
familiar  with  these  principles,  though  we  may  never 
have  thought  of  them  as  fixed  laws,  that  we  instinc- 
tively make  use  of  them  when  trying  to  convey  our 
meaning  to  others. 

A  deviation  from  the  literal  use  of  language  for  the 
sake  of  greater  effect  is  a  figure  of  speech. 

"9    . 


120  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

Figures  are  also  called  tropes  ^  (from  the  Greek, 
TpETrecv,  trepein,  to  turn),  because  when  used  with  a 
figurative  significance,  a  word  is  turned  from  its  ordi- 
nary meaning  to  one  suggested  by  resernbla7ice,  associa- 
tt07iy  or  contrast. 

Relation  to  Clearness  and  Force.  —  The  following 
pages  are  devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the  commonest 
figures,  or  tropes.  In  studying  these  pages  the  student 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  object  in  view  is  to  enable 
him  to  write  clearly  and  forcibly;  for  in  the  majority 
of  cases  the  page  of  writing  that  is  very  clear  in  mean- 
ing, or  that  impresses  one  with  great  force,  is  marked 
by  the  apt  use  of  figurative  language,  and  therefore  in 
discussing  clearness  and  force  a  knowledge  of  figures  is 
essential. 

Above  all  things,  the  student  should  be  saved  from 
the  belief  that  figures  are  ornaments  of  style,  to  be 
tacked  on  to  one's  writing  to  make  it  finer  than  it  was 
before,  and  that  therefore  he  should  have  them  all  by 
name. 

FIGURES   BASED    UPON   RESEMBLANCE. 

I.  Simile.  —  In  the  sentence,  "  The  ungodly  are  like 
the  chaff  which  the  wind  driveth  away,"  the  violent  end 
of  the  ungodly  is  suggested  by  their  resemblance  to  the 
worthless  part  of  the  grain  which  is  blown  away  by  the 
wind.  The  objects  compared  are  alike  only  in  this 
respect;  viz.,  that  both  are  finally  cast  aside  as  worth- 
less.    If  they  were  alike  in  many  respects,  there  would 


1  Some  writers  confine  the  meaning  of  the  word  trope  to  a  single  word 
used  in  other  than  its  ordinary  significance.  This  definition  would  exclude 
simile,  irony,  and  other  extended  figures. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  121 

be  no  figure;  for  as  the  comparison  would  be  literal, 
there  would  be  no  departure  from  the  ordinary  use  of 
language.  It  is  no  figure  to  say  of  a  man  that  he  is  as 
treacherous  as  an  Indian,  or  that  the  earth  is  round  like 
an  orange.  But  it  is  a  figure  of  speech  to  say,  **  My 
love  is  like  the  red,  red  rose,"  or,  "  Kings  are  like 
stars  —  they  rise  and  set." 

That  figure  in  which  an  idea  is  suggested  by  pointing 
out  a  resemblance  between  things  otherwise  unlike  is 
called  simile, 

EXAMPLES. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  sentences  contain  similes,  and 
explain  wherein  the  figure  consists  :  — 

As  snow  in  summer,  and  as  rain  in  harvest,  so  honor  is  not 
seemly  for  a  fool. 

As  for  man,  his  days  are  as  grass ;  as  a  flower  of  the  field 
so  he  fiourisheth. 

Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children,  so  the  Lord  pitieth 
them  that  fear  him. 

But  the  cruel  rocks,  they  gored  her  side 
Like  the  horns  of  an  angry  bull. 

This  is  the  Arsenal.     From  floor  to  ceiling. 
Like  a  huge  organ,  rise  the  burnished  arms. 

Pity,  like  a  naked,  new-born  babe,  striding  the  blast. 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 

As  killing  as  the  canker  to  the  rose. 

Or  taint-worm  to  the  weanling  herds  that  graze, 

Or  frost  to  flowers,  that  their  gay  wardrobe  wear, 

When  first  the  whitethorn  blows ; 

Such,  Lycidas,  thy  loss  to  shepherds'  ear. 


122  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy  flax, 

Her  cheek  like  the  dawn  of  day, 
And  her  bosom  white  as  the  hawthorn  buds 

That  ope  in  the  month  of  May. 

Many  a  night  I  saw  the  Pleiads,  rising  through  the  mellow  shade, 
Glitter  like  a  swarm  of  fireflies  tangled  in  a  silver  braid. 

She  never  told  her  love, 
But  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  i'  the  bud, 
Feed  on  her  damask  cheek  :  she  pined  in  thought ; 
And,  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 
She  sat  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  grief. 

So  said  he  ;  and  the  barge  with  oar  and  sail 
Moved  from  the  brink,  like  some  full-breasted  swan 
That,  fluting  a  wild  carol  ere  her  death, 
Ruflles  her  pure  cold  plume,  and  takes  the  flood 
With  swarthy  webs. 

II.  Metaphor. — The  quotation,  "A  star  v^as  in  her 
midnight  hair,"  does  not  really  mean  that  any  star  was 
there,  or  that  the  hair  was  in  any  way  an  attribute  of 
midnight.  It  does  mean  that  a  gem  was  in  her  hair ; 
that  the  gem  was  like  a  star  in  brightness  ;  and  that  her 
hair  was  dark  as  midnight.  If  we  point  out  the  re- 
semblance and  say,  "  A  starlike  gem  was  in  her  dark 
as  midnight  hair,"  we  undoubtedly  suggest  much  more 
than  the  literal  statement.  But  if  we  assume  the  resem- 
blance, and  call  the  gem  a  star  and  the  hair  midnight, 
we  paint  a  stronger  picture,  and  use  fewer  words  in 
doing  it. 

Substittttiitg  the  name  of  one  object  for  the  name  of 
another  which  resembles  it^  is  the  most  frequently  used 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  123 

and  the  most  forcible  of  all  figures  of  speechy  and  is 
known  by  the  na7ne  of  metaphor. 

In  metaphor,  the  resemblance  is  implied,  not  ex- 
pressed. In  this  respect  only  does  metaphor  differ 
from  simile.  Omit  the  words  of  comparison,  and  all 
similes  become  metaphors. 

" The  righteous  shall  be  a  flourishing  palm  tree:  he 
shall  be  a  cedar  growing  in  Lebanon,"  —  is  an  example 
of  a  simile  which,  by  the  omission  of  the  words  of  com- 
parison, has  become  a  metaphor. 

Most  slang  expressions  are  ridiculous  but  forcible 
metaphors. 

To  call  any  one  a  hummer^  a  daisy,  a  hog,  or  a  wool- 
gatherer,  or  to  say  that  he  is  not  in  it,  or  that  his  leg  is 
pulled,  is  a  figure  of  speech  based  on  a  fancied  resem- 
blance. 

EXPLAIN  THE   METAPHOR    IN  THE  FOLLOWING   EXAMPLES. 

The  ship  of  state. 

The  sinews  of  war. 

The  staff  of  life. 

The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd. 

She  was  a  phantom  of  delight. 

He  wears  the  rose  of  youth  upon  him. 

Thy  word  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet. 

The  news  was  a  dagger  to  his  heart. 

There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men  which,  taken  at  the  flood, 
leads  on  to  fortune. 

Come  into  the  garden,  Maud, 
For  the  black  bat,  night,  has  flown. 


124  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

Queen  rose  of  the  rosebud  garden  of  girls, 

Come  hither,  the  dances  are  done, 
In  gloss  of  satin  and  glimmer  of  pearls, 

Queen  Hly  and  rose  in  one  ; 
Shine  out,  little  head,  sunmng  over  with  curls. 

To  the  flowers,  and  be  their  sun. 

One  burnished  sheet  of  living  gold. 
Loch  Katrine  lay  beneath  him  rolled. 

The  soul  of  the  rose  went  into  my  blood. 

This  world  is  an  unweeded  garden. 

Those  that  be  planted  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  shall  flourish 
in  the  courts  of  our  God. 

They  shall  still  bring  forth  fruit  in  old  age ;  they  shall  be  fat 
and  flourishing. 

III.  Allegory.  —  The  following  extract  is  given  as  an 
illustration  of  allegory. 

[from  bunyan's  "  pilgrim's  progress."] 

Now  I  saw  in  my  dream,  that  when  Obstinate  was  gone 
back.  Christian  and  PHable  went  talking  over  the  plain ;  and 
thus  they  began  their  discourse. 

Chr.  Come,  neighbor  Pliable,  how  do  you  do  ?  I  am  glad 
you  are  persuaded  to  go  along  with  me.  Had  even  Obstinate 
himself  but  felt  what  I  have  felt  of  the  powers  and  terrors  of 
what  is  yet  unseen,  he  would  not  thus  lightly  have  given  us  the 
back. 

Pli.  Come,  neighbor  Christian,  since  there  are  none  but  us 
two  here,  tell  me  now  farther,  what  the  things  are,  and  how  to 
be  enjoyed,  whither  we  are  going. 

Chr.  I  can  better  conceive  of  them  with  my  mind,  than 
speak  of  them  with  my  tongue ;  but  yet,  since  you  are  desirous 
to  know,  I  will  read  of  them  in  my  book. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1 25 

Pli.  And  do  you  think  that  the  words  of  your  book  are  cer- 
tainly true  ? 

Chr.  Yes,  verily ;  for  it  was  made  by  Him  that  cannot  lie. 


Pli.  Well,  my  good  companion,  glad  am  I  to  hear  of  these 
things  :  come  on,  let  us  mend  our  pace. 

Chr.  I  cannot  go  so  fast  as  I  would,  by  reason  of  this  burden 
that  is  on  my  back. 

Now  I  saw  in  my  dream,  that  just  as  they  had  ended  this 
talk,  they  drew  nigh  to  a  very  miry  slough  that  was  in  the  midst 
of  the  plain :  and  they  being  heedless,  did  both  fall  suddenly 
into  the  bog.  The  name  of  the  slough  was  Despond.  Here, 
therefore,  they  wallowed  for  a  time,  being  grievously  bedaubed 
with  dirt ;  and  Christian,  because  of  the  burden  that  was  on  his 
back,  began  to  sink  in  the  mire. 

Then  said  Pliable,  "  Ah,  neighbor  Christian,  where  are  you 
now?" 

"Truly,"  said  Christian,  "  I  do  not  know." 

At  this  Pliable  began  to  be  offended,  and  angrily  said  to 
his  fellow,  "  Is  this  the  happiness  you  have  told  me  all  this 
while  of  ?  If  we  have  such  ill  speed  at  our  first  setting  out, 
what  may  we  expect  between  this  and  our  journey's  end  ?  May 
I  get  out  again  with  my  life,  you  shall  possess  the  brave  country 
alone  for  me."  And  with  that  he  gave  a  desperate  struggle  or 
two,  and  got  out  of  the  mire  on  that  side  of  the  slough  which 
was  next  to  his  own  house :  so  away  he  went,  and  Christian 
saw  him  no  more. 

Wherefore  Christian  was  left  to  tumble  in  the  Slough  of 
Despond  alone ;  but  still  he  endeavored  to  struggle  to  that  side 
of  the  slough  that  was  farthest  from  his  own  house,  and  next  to 
the  wicket  gate ;  the  which  he  did,  but  could  not  get  out 
because  of  the  burden  that  was  upon  his  back :  but  I  beheld 
in  my  dream,  that  a  man  came  to  him,  whose  name  was  Help, 
and  asked  him  what  he  did  there. 


126  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

"  Sir,"  said  Christian,  "  I  was  bid  to  go  this  way  by  a  man 
called  Evangelist,  who  directed  me  also  to  yonder  gate,  that  I 
might  escape  the  wrath  to  come.  And  as  I  was  going  thither, 
I  fell  in  here." 

Help.  But  why  did  not  you  look  for  the  steps? 

Chr.  Fear  followed  me  so  hard  that  I  fled  the  next  way,  and 
fell  in. 

Then  said  Help,  "  Give  me  thy  hand."  So  he  gave  him 
his  hand,  and  he  drew  him  out,  and  he  set  him  upon  sound 
ground,  and  bid  him  go  on  his  way. 

Then  I  stepped  to  him  that  plucked  him  out,  and  said,  "  Sir, 
wherefore,  since  over  this  place  is  the  way  from  the  city  of 
Destruction  to  yonder  gate,  is  it,  that  this  plat  is  not  mended, 
that  poor  travelers  might  go  thither  with  more  security?  "  And 
he  said  unto  me,  ''This  miry  slough  is  such  a  place  as  cannot 
be  mended :  it  is  the  descent  whither  the  scum  and  filth  that 
attends  conviction  for  sin  doth  continually  run,  and  therefore 
it  is  called  the  Slough  of  Despond ;  for  still,  as  the  sinner  is 
awakened  about  his  lost  condition,  there  arise  in  his  soul  many 
fears  and  doubts,  and  discouraging  apprehensions,  which  all  of 
them  get  together,  and  settle  in  this  place  :  and  this  is  the 
reason  of  the  badness  of  this  ground. 

"It  is  not  the  pleasure  of  the  King  that  this  place  should 
remain  so  bad.  His  laborers  also  have,  by  the  direction  of  his 
Majesty's  surveyors,  been  for  above  these  sixteen  hundred  years 
employed  about  this  patch  of  ground,  if  perhaps  it  might  have 
been  mended:  yea,  and  to  my  knowledge,"  said  he,  ''there 
have  been  swallowed  up  at  least  twenty  thousand  cartloads,  yea, 
millions  of  wholesome  instructions,  that  have  at  all  seasons  been 
brought  from  all  places  of  the  King's  dominions  (and  they  that 
can  tell,  say  they  are  the  best  materials  to  make  good  ground  of 
the  place),  if  so  be  it  might  have  been  mended  ;  but  it  is  the 
Slough  of  Despond  still,  and  so  will  be  when  they  have  done 
what  they  can. 

"  True,  there  are,  by  the  direction  of  the  Lawgiver,  certain 


FIGURES  OF   SPEECH.  12/ 

good  and  substantial  steps,  placed  even  through  the  very  midst 
of  this  slough ;  but  at  such  time  as  this  place  doth  much  spew 
out  its  filth,  as  it  doth  against  change  of  weather,  these  steps 
are  hardly  seen ;  or  if  they  be,  men,  through  the  dizziness  of 
their  heads,  step  beside,  and  then  they  are  bemired  to  pur- 
pose, notwithstanding  the  steps  be  there  :  but  the  ground  is 
good  when  they  are  once  got  in  at  the  gate." 

Now  I  saw  in  my  dream,  that  by  this  time  Pliable  was  got 
home  to  his  house.  So  his  neighbors  came  to  visit  him ;  and 
some  of  them  called  him  wise  man  for  coming  back,  and 
some  called  him  fool  for  hazarding  himself  with  Christian : 
others,  again,  did  mock  at  his  cowardHness,  saying,  "  Surely, 
since  you  began  to  venture,  I  would  not  have  been  so  base  as 
to  have  given  out  for  a  few  difficulties."  So  Pliable  sat  sneak- 
ing among  them.  But  at  last  he  got  more  confidence,  and  then 
they  all  turned  their  tales,  and  began  to  deride  poor  Christian 
behind  his  back.     And  thus  much  concerning  Pliable. 

The  passage  just  quoted  is  from  a  book  familiar  by 
name  at  least  to  all,  and  remarkable  for  its  simplicity 
and  power.  In  this  vv^ork,  by  giving  an  account  of  the 
difficulties  which  a  traveler  encounters  in  going  from 
one  city  to  another,  Bunyan  portrays,  more  graphi- 
cally than  any  other  writer  before  or  since  his  time,  the 
experiences  of  a  Christian  in  his  life  upon  earth.  In 
the  extract  above  we  have  read  two  stories  at  once  :  one 
of  a  man  who  has  trouble  in  crossing  a  stream;  and 
the  other,  an  account  of  the  despondencies  of  a  recent 
convert  to  Christianity.  The  passage  is  really  an  ex- 
tended metaphor ;  and  the  double  narrative  results  from 
the  fact  that  the  words  may  be  taken  in  their  literal 
meaning  or  in  that  suggested  by  the  law  of  resem- 
blance. 

A  story  which  thus  implies  another  is  called  an  allegory. 


128  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Most  of  the  parables  of  the  Bible  are  allegories.  The 
story  of  the  Prodigal  Son  really  relates  the  experience 
of  the  Christian  who,  having  lived  a  godless  life,  seeks 
God  again  in  penitence. 

The  Twenty-third  Psalm  is  an  allegory,  or  at  least  an 
extended  metaphor. 

"  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd ;  I  shall  not  want. 

"  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures  :  he  leadeth 
me  beside  the  still  waters. 

"  He  restoreth  my  soul :  he  leadeth  me  in  the  paths  of  right- 
eousness for  his  name's  sake. 

"  Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,  I  will  fear  no  evil :  for  thou  art  with  me ;  thy  rod  and 
thy  staff  they  comfort  me. 

"  Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me  in  the  presence  of  mine 
enemies  :  thou  anointest  my  head  with  oil ;  my  cup  runneth 
over. 

"Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days 
of  my  life :  and  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
for  ever." 

IV.  Personification.  —  "Come,  gentle  Spring!  Ethe- 
real Mildness,  come !  "  In  reading  this,  thougji  we  are 
aware  that  spring  cannot  appreciate  the  words  ad- 
dressed to  it  by  the  poet,  the  likeness  between  the  soft, 
mild  breezes  of  May  and  the  delicate  touch  of  a  tender 
hand,  enables  one  to  appreciate  the  poetic  imagination 
which  addresses  spring  as  a  human  being.  There  is 
unquestioned  power  and  beauty  in  the  figure  which 
suggests  the  approach  of  spring  in  the  form  of  a  gentle 
maiden  ;  and  there  is  almost  always  a  charm  in  the 
discovery  of  a  likeness  between  personal  and  imper- 
sonal objects. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1 29 

The  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  attributes  of  human 
or  other  living  beings  are  implied  or  directly  given  to 
objects  which  do  not  actually  possess  such  attributes  is 
called  personification. 

This  figure  may  be  deliberately  used  by  addressing 
inanimate  objects  as  if  alive,  or  may  slip  almost  imper- 
ceptibly into  one's  writing  by  the  use  of  a  part  of 
speech  not  literally  applicable  to  the  object  to  which 
it  refers  ;  as,  — 

"  O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting? 
O  Grave,  where  is  thy  victory?  " 

"  How  wonderful  is  Death ! 
Death  and  his  brother,  Sleep !  " 

or  less  deliberately,  — 

The  wanton  winds,  the  playful  breezC;  the  cruel  waves,  the  howl- 
ing storm. 

"The  sun  at  noon  looked  down  and  saw  not  one." 

EXAMPLES  OF  PERSONIFICATION. 

Point  out  the  way  in  which  personification  is  given  to 
objects  in  the  following  examples :  — 

A  dry  and  thirsty  land. 

Ambition's  debt  is  paid. 

Love  must  cHng  where  it  can,  I  say. 

The  beggar  thinks  no  longer  of  his  whining  trade. 

Love  took  up  the  harp  of  life,  and  smote  on  all  the  chords 
with  might. 

Ye  glittering  towns,  with  wealth  and  splendor  crowned. 

O  wandering  graves  !     O  restless  sleep  ! 

O  silence  of  the  sunless  day  ! 
O  still  ravine  !     O  stormy  deep  ! 

Give  up  your  prey  !     Give  up  your  prey  I 

SCH.  ENG.  —  9 


I30  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night, 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there 

All  night  have  the  roses  heard 
The  flute,  violin,  and  bassoon. 

And  the  sunlight  clasps  the  earth, 
And  the  moonbeams  kiss  the  sea. 

Mercy  and  truth  are  met  together ;  righteousness  and  peace 
have  kissed  each  other. 


FIGURES   BASED    UPON   ASSOCIATION. 

I.  Metonymy.  —  "A  watched  pot  never  boils ;  "  nor 
will  any  pot  boil,  though  the  water  in  it  may.  It  is  not, 
however,  incorrect  to  speak  of  a  boiling  kettle,  or  to  say 
that  the  pulpits  of  the  city  are  conducting  a  crusade 
against  vice.  The  meaning  is  as  clear  as  if  we  had 
named  the  water  in  the  kettle,  or  the  ministers  of  the 
city.     For  an  object  named  may  suggest  another  — 

(6i)   If  the  two  objects  are  generally  seen  together. 

Ex.  Excellent  table y^r  excellent  food. 
(d)   If  one  contains  the  other. 

Ex.    Long  purse /<?r  plenty  of  money. 

(c)  If  one  is  the  cause  or  the  effect  of  the  other. 

Ex.   The  sweat  of  the  brow /or  hard  work. 

(d)  If  one  is  the  material  out  of  which  the  other  is 
made. 

Ex.    A  collection  of  bronzes  for  a  collection  of  bronze  statuary. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  I3I 

{e)  If  one  is  used  as  a  sign  to  denote  the  other. 

Ex.   Winning  laurels /br  winning  victory. 
(/)   If  one  is  an  abstract  quality  of  the  other. 

Ex.   Marrying  wealth /^r  marrying  a  rich  man  or  woman. 

The  figure  of  speech  which  suggests  an  idea  by  fnen- 
tioning  the  name  of  an  object  associated  with  that  idea  is 
called  metonymy. 

Students  often  confuse  metonymy  and  metaphor, 
because  the  words  begin  with  the  same  syllable,  and 
because  each  figure  calls  objects  by  other  than  their  own 
names.  Metonymy  and  metaphor  differ  in  that  metaphor 
consists  in  calling  an  object  by  the  name  of  one  that 
resembles  it ;  metonymy,  by  the  name  of  one  that  is 
often  associated  with  it  without  any  idea  of  resemblance. 

Ex.  The  opinion  of  the  press ^  means  the  opinion  of  the  newspaper 
editors^  not  because  of  any  resemblance,  but  because  of  the 
relation  between  the  two  ideas. 

Synecdoche  is  a  special  form  of  metonymy ^  and  con- 
sists in  denoting  the  part  by  the  whole  or  the  whole  by 
any  of  its  parts. 

Ex.   A  fleet  of  twenty  masts  (twenty  ships). 
A  wheel  (a  bicycle) . 
A  force  of  fifty  hands  (fifty  workmen) . 
A  hundred  head  (a  hundred  cattle) . 

EXAMPLES   OF   METONYMY  AND  SYNECDOCHE. 

Point  out  the  words  which  suggest  others,  and  explain  how 
they  suggest  them  :  — 

A  decision  of  the  bench.     Members  of  the  bar. 
The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 


132  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

The  sleep  of  the  cradle. 

I  have  been  reading  Tennyson. 

The  thrones  of  Europe  are  tottering. 

The  tendency  of  the  age. 

Man  shall  live  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 

Who  devour  widows'  houses. 

This  is  a  most  excellent  dish. 

He  is  bow  oar  in  the  University  crew. 

He  has  a  warm  heart. 

He  is  a  fine  bowler  and  an  excellent  bat. 

Swift  as  an  arrow  flies  the  leaden  death. 

His  banner  leads  the  spears  no  more  amid  the  hills  of  Spain. 

In  the  Cross  of  Christ  I  glory. 

I  turned  to  see  the  voice  that  spake  with  me. 

Beauty  is  easy  enough  to  win,  but  one  is  not  loved  every  day. 

A  good  man  he  was,  and  vigilant  over  his  granddaughter's 
deportment  in  any  case  where  young  Oxford  might  be  con- 
cerned. 

II.  Apostrophe. — When  Milton  in  his  "Lycidas" 
asks,  *'  Where  were  ye,  nymphs,  when  the  remorseless 
deep  closed  o'er  the  head  of  your  loved  Lycidas  ?  "  the 
nymphs  were  present  only  in  the  imagination ;  but 
addressing  them  as  if  present  brings  them  more  vividly 
before  the  reader's  vision  than  would  any  other  method 
of  referring  to  them. 

The  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  absent  are  addressed 
as  if  present^  or  the  dead  as  if  living,  is  called  apostrophe. 

In  addressing  inanimate  objects,  apostrophe  implies 
personification  also. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1 33 

EXAMPLES   OF   APOSTROPHE. 

O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting? 
O  Grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ? 

Ye  crags  and  peaks,  I'm  with  you  once  again  ! 

Awake,  awake ;  put  on  thy  strength,  O  Zion. 

O  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  prophets  ! 

Woe  unto  thee,  Chorazin  !  woe  unto  thee,  Bethsaida  ! 

And  thou,  Capernaum,  which  art  exalted  to  heaven,  shalt  be 
thrust  down  to  hell. 

Thou  hast  taught  me.  Silent  River, 

Many  a  lesson  deep  and  long ; 
Thou  hast  been  a  generous  giver ; 

I  can  give  thee  but  a  song. 

Sweet  April !     Many  a  thought 

Is  wedded  unto  thee,  as  hearts  are  wed. 

Yet  once  more,  O  ye  laurels,  and  once  more 
Ye  myrtles  brown,  with  ivy  never  sere. 

III.  Hyperbole.  —  "  And  the  Midianites,  and  the 
Amalekites,  and  all  the  children  of  the  east,  lay  along 
the  valley  like  grasshoppers  for  multitude  ;  and  their 
camels  were  v^ithout  number,  as  the  sand  by  the  sea- 
side for  multitude."  Doubtless  this  is  a  true  statement 
of  the  impression  produced  upon  the  terrified  Israelite, 
as  he  looked  down  upon  the  host  of  Midian  ;  and  with- 
out the  exaggeration  used  in  this  statement,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  impress  us  with  the  alarm  felt  at  the  time. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  an  object  of  extraordinary- 
dimensions,  either  great  or  small,  generally  produces  at 
first  sight  an  impression  that  the  object  is  greater  or 


134  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

less  than  it  is  in  reality.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  sug- 
gest to  the  reader  the  same  impression  as  that  which 
we  had  at  first  sight  of  some  remarkable  object,  we 
must  exaggerate  or  overstate  the  actual  dimensions. 

An  exaggerated  expression  which  increases  the  vivid- 
ness of  a  statement  without  conveying  a  false  impression 
is  called  hyperbole. 

EXAMPLES  OF   HYPERBOLE. 

All  the  perfumes  of  Arabia  will  not  sweeten  this  little  hand. 

From  the  meadow  your  walks  have  left  so  sweet, 
That  whenever  the  March-wind  sighs. 

He  sets  the  jewel-print  of  your  feet 
In  violets  blue  as  your  eyes. 

Behold  he  drinketh  up  a  river  and  hasteth  not. 

Weary  lawyers  with  endless  tongues. 

I  began  to  think  he  was  going  on  forever. 

I  lov'd  Ophelia  :  forty  thousand  brothers 
Could  not  with  all  their  quantity  of  love 
Make  up  my  sum. 

I  could  have  half  beheved  I  heard  the  leaves  and  blossoms 
growing. 

FIGURES    BASED    UPON    CONTRAST. 

I.  Irony.  —  When  the  prophets  of  Baal  in  their  con- 
test with  Elijah  were  unsuccessfully  calling  upon  their 
god  to  send  down  the  fire  from  heaven,  Elijah  said  to 
them,  '*  Cry  aloud  :  for  he  is  a  god ;  either  he  is  talking, 
or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey,  or  peradvent- 
ure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked."  In  enumer- 
ating these  actions  of   a  living  being  and  attributing 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH.  1 35 

them  to  Baal,  Elijah  meant  to  distress  the  prophets  by 
making  evident  the  fact  that  Baal  was  a  lifeless  god. 
As  was  said  in  the  opening  of  this  chapter,  it  may  often 
be  more  forcible  to  say  the  opposite  of  what  we  have  in 
mind,  and  allow  the  evident  falsity  of  our  statement  to 
suggest  the  truth,  than  to  make  a  literal  statement  of 
what  is  meant. 

That  ^nethod  of  statement  in  which  the  suggested  mean- 
ing is  contraiy  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  words 
used  is  known  as  irony. 

There  is  very  little  irony  found  in  the  Scriptures. 
One  of  the  few  examples  is  where  Job  replies  to  the 
tiresome  advice  of  his  friends :  — 

"  No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die 
with  you." 

The  editorials  of  the  daily  newspapers  depend  much 
upon  irony  for  the  criticism  of  party  policy. 

EXAMPLES   OF   IRONY. 

[from   ELIPHALET  NOTT's  "address  on  the  death   of  ALEXANDER  HAMILTON."] 

One  man  of  honor  by  some  inadvertence,  or  perhaps  with 
some  design,  injures  the  sensibility  of  another  man  of  honor. 
In  perfect  character  the  injured  gentleman  resents  it.  He 
challenges  the  offender.  The  offender  accepts  the  challenge. 
The  time  is  fixed.  The  place  is  agreed  upon.  The  circum- 
stances, with  an  air  of  solemn  mania,  are  arranged ;  and  the 
principals,  with  their  seconds  and  surgeons,  retire  under  the 
cover  of  some  solitary  hill,  or  upon  the  margin  of  some  unfre- 
quented beach,  to  settle  this  important  question  of  honor  by 
stabbing  or  shooting  at  each  other.  One  or  the  other,  or  both 
the  parties,  fall  in  this  gentleman-like  contest. 


136  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

It  is  true  that  he  who  falls  in  single  combat  has  the  honor 
of  being  murdered;  and  he  who  takes  his  life,  the  honor 
of  being  a  murderer.  Besides  this,  I  know  not  of  any  glory 
that  can  redound  to  the  infatuated  combatants,  except  it  be 
what  results  from  having  extended  the  circle  of  wretched 
widows,  and  added  to  the  number  of  hapless  orphans.  And 
yet,  terminate  as  it  will,  this  frantic  meeting,  by  a  kind  of 
magic  influence,  entirely  varnishes  over  a  defective  and  smutty 
character;  transforms  vice  to  virtue,  cowardice  to  courage; 
makes  falsehood  truth ;  guilt,  innocence,  —  in  one  word, 
gives  a  new  complexion  to  the  whole  state  of  things.  The 
Ethiopian  changes  his  skin,  the  leopard  his  spots,  and  the 
debauched  and  treacherous,  having  shot  away  the  infamy  of  a 
sorry  life,  comes  back  to  the  field  of  perfectibility,  quite  re- 
generated, and  in  the  fullest  sense  an  honorable  man.  He  is 
now  fit  for  the  company  of  gentlemen.  He  is  again  admitted 
to  that  company,  and  should  he  again  by  acts  of  vileness  stain 
this  purity  of  character  so  nobly  acquired,  and  should  any  one 
have  the  effrontery  to  say  he  has  done  so,  again  he  stands  ready 
to  vindicate  his  honor,  and  by  another  act  of  homicide  to  wipe 
away  the  stain  which  has  been  attached  to  it. 

[from  Thackeray's  "  newcomes,"  chapter  viii.] 

To  push  on  in  the  crowd,  every  male  or  female  struggler 
must  use  his  or  her  shoulder.  If  a  better  place  than  yours 
presents  itself  just  beyond  your  neighbor,  elbow  him  and  take 
it.  Look  how  a  steadily-purposed  man  or  woman  at  court,  at 
a  ball,  or  exhibition,  wherever  there  is  a  competition  and  a 
squeeze,  gets  the  best  place ;  the  nearest  the  sovereign,  if  bent 
on  kissing  the  royal  hand ;  the  closest  to  the  grand  stand,  if 
minded  to  go  to  Ascot ;  the  best  view  and  hearing  of  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Thumpington,  when  all  the  town  is  rushing  to  hear  that 
exciting  divine ;  the  largest  quantity  of  ice,  champagne,  and 
seltzer,  cold  pate,  or  other  his  or  her  favorite  flesh-pot,  if 
gluttonously  minded,  at  a  supper  whence  hundreds  of  people 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  I37 

come  empty  away.  A  woman  of  the  world  will  marry  her 
daughter  and  have  done  with  her,  get  her  carriage,  and  be  at 
home  and  asleep  in  bed  ;  whilst  a  timid  mamma  has  still  her  girl 
in  the  nursery,  or  is  beseeching  the  servants  in  the  cloak-room 
to  look  for  her  shawls,  with  which  some  one  else  has  whisked 
away  an  hour  ago.  What  a  man  has  to  do  in  society  is  to  assert 
himself.  Is  there  a  good  place  at  table?  Take  it.  At  the 
Treasury  or  the  Home  Office  ?  Ask  for  it.  Do  you  want  to  go 
to  a  party  to  which  you  are  not  invited?  Ask  to  be  asked. 
Ask  A,  ask  B,  ask  Mrs.  C,  ask  everybody  you  know :  you  will 
be  thought  a  bore  ;  but  you  will  have  your  way.  What  matters 
if  you  are  considered  obtrusive,  provided  that  you  obtrude? 
By  pushing  steadily,  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  people  in  a 
thousand  will  yield  to  you.  Only  command  persons,  and  you 
may  be  pretty  sure  that  a  good  number  will  obey.  How  well 
your  money  will  have  been  laid  out,  O  gentle  reader,  who 
purchase  this ;  and  taking  the  maxim  to  heart,  follow  it  through 
life  !  You  may  be  sure  of  success.  If  your  neighbor's  foot 
obstructs  you,  stamp  on  it;  and  do  you  suppose  he  won't 
take  it  away? 

II.  Epigram.  —  The  truth  of  the  saying,  "  Beauty 
when  unadorned,  adorned  the  most,"  is  made  more 
striking  by  the  apparent  contradiction  in  terms,  and 
by  the  brevity  of  the  expression. 

A  short  sentence  or  phrase  which  suggests  a  truth  by 
an  apparent  contradiction  is  called  an  epigram, 

EXAMPLES   OF   EPIGRAM. 

The  child  is  father  of  the  man. 
The  king  is  dead,  long  Uve  the  king. 
Failures  are  the  pillars  of  success. 
When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 
Conspicuous  for  its  absence. 


138  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

We  could  not  see  the  woods  for  the  trees. 

Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 
So  many  things  are  striking  that  nothing  strikes. 
The  easiest  way  of  doing  nothing  is  to  do  it. 
Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought. 
Summer  has  set  in  with  its  usual  severity. 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES   OF   FIGURES. 

Name  and  explain  any  figure  found  in  the  appended  extracts, 
and  notice  how  the  expression  of  thought  is  made  clearer  and 
more  forcible  than  it  could  be  by  the  use  of  Hteral  expressions  :  — 

SHAKESPEARE. 
I.    CARDINAL  WOLSEY'S  SOLILOQUY. 

Farewell !  a  long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness  ! 
This  is  the  state  of  man :  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope ;  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost, 
And  when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely 
His  greatness  is  a-ripening,  nips  his  root. 
And  then  he  falls,  as  I  do.     I  have  ventured, 
Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders, 
This  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory. 
But  far  beyond  my  depth  :  my  high-blown  pride 
At  length  broke  under  me,  and  now  has  left  me, 
Weary  and  old  with  service,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a  rude  stream,  that  must  forever  hide  me. 
Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I  hate  ye : 
I  feel  my  heart  new  open'd.     O,  how  wretched 
Is  that  poor  man  that  hangs  on  princes'  favors! 
There  is,  betwixt  that  smile  we  would  aspire  to, 
That  sweet  aspect  of  princes  and  their  ruin, 
More  pangs  and  fears  than  wars  or  women  have : 
And  when  he  falls,  he  falls  like  Lucifer, 
Never  to  hope  again. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1 39 


II.     WOLSEY'S  farewell  to   CROMWELL. 

Thus  far,  hear  me,  Cromwell ; 

And,  when  I  am  forgotten,  as  I  shall  be. 

And  sleep  in  dull  cold  marble,  where  no  mention 

Of  me  more  must  be  heard  of,  say,  I  taught  thee, 

Say,  Wolsey,  that  once  trod  the  ways  of  glory. 

And  sounded  all  the  depths  and  shoals  of  honor. 

Found  thee  a  way,  out  of  his  wreck,  to  rise  in ; 

A  sure  and  safe  one,  though  thy  master  miss'd  it. 

Mark  but  my  fall,  and  that  that  ruined  me. 

Cromwell,  I  charge  thee,  fling  away  ambition  : 

By  that  sin  fell  the  angels  ;  how  can  man,  then, 

The  image  of  his  Maker,'  hope  to  win  by  it  ? 

Love  thyself  last ;  cherish  those  hearts  that  hate  thee ; 

Corruption  wins  not  more  than  honesty. 

Still  in  thy  right  hand  carry  gentle  peace. 

To  silence  envious  tongues.     Be  just,  and  fear  not : 

Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's , 

Thy  God's,  and  truth's ;  then,  if  thou  fall'st,  O  Cromwell, 

Thou  fall'st  a  blessed  martyr. 

Serve  the  king ;  and,  — prithee,  lead  me  in : 

There  take  an  inventory  of  all  I  have. 

To  the  last  penny ;  'tis  the  king's  :  my  robe. 

And  my  integrity  to  heaven,  is  all 

I  dare  now  call  mine  own.     O  Cromwell,  Cromwell! 

Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 

I  served  my  king,  he  would  not  in  mine  age 

Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies. 


GRAY. 
ELEGY 

WRITTEN  IN  A  COUNTRY  CHURCHYARD. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 


140  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 
And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 

Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight. 
And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds ; 

Save  that,  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tow'r. 
The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 

Of  such  as,  wandVing  near  her  secret  bow'r. 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade. 
Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mold'ring  heap, 

Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid. 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  twitt'ring  from  the  straw-built  shed, 

The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn, 
Or  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care ; 

No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return. 
Or  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 

Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield. 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke : 

How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  team  afield  ! 

How  bow'd  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke  ! 

Let  not  ambition  mock  their  useful  toil. 
Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure  ; 

Nor  grandeur  hear  with  a  disdainful  smile 
The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  powV, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave. 

Await  alike  th'  inevitable  hour : 
The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 


FIGURES  OF   SPEECH. 

Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 
If  memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise, 

Where  thro'  the  long-drawn  isle  and  fretted  vault 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 

Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust. 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 

Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 

Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire ; 

Hands,  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  sway'd, 
Or  wak'd  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre. 

But  knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time  did  ne'er  unroll ; 

Chill  penury  repress'd  their  noble  rage. 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 

Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark  unfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear : 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 

Some  village-Hampden,  that,  with  dauntless  breast. 
The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood, 

Some  mute  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest, 
Some  Cromwell  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

Th'  applause  of  list'ning  senates  to  command. 
The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise. 

To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 
And  read  their  hist'ry  in  a  nation's  eyes. 

Their  lot  forbade  :  nor  circumscrib'd  alone 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confin'd  ; 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind, 


141 


142  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  truth  to  hide, 
To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  shame, 

Or  heap  the  shrine  of  luxury  and  pride 
With  incense  kindled  at  the  Muse's  flame. 

Far  from  the  madding  crowd's  ignoble  strife, 
Their  sober  wishes  never  learn'd  to  stray ; 

Along  the  cool  sequestered  vale  of  life 
They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

Yet  ev'n  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect 
Some  frail  memorial  still  erected  nigh, 

With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculpture  deck'd, 
Implores  the  passing  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

Their  name,  their  years,  spelt  by  th'  unlettered  Muse, 
The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply : 

And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews. 
That  teach  the  rustic  moralist  to  die. 

For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 
This  pleasing  anxious  being  e'er  resign'd. 

Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  longing  ling'ring  look  behind  ? 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies. 
Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires ; 

E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries. 
E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

For  thee,  who  mindful  of  th'  unhonor'd  dead 
Dost  in  these  lines  their  artless  tale  relate ; 

If  chance,  by  lonely  contemplation  led, 
Some  kindred  spirit  shall  inquire  thy  fate. 

Haply  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 
"  Oft  have  we  seen  him  at  the  peep  of  dawn 

Brushing  with  hasty  steps  the  dews  away. 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH.  143 

"  There  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech, 
That  wreathes  its  old  fantastic  roots  so  high, 

His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch, 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  babbles  by. 

"  Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling  as  in  scorn, 
MuttVing  his  wayward  fancies  he  would  rove ; 

Now  drooping,  woeful  wan,  like  one  forlorn. 
Or  craz'd  with  care,  or  cross'd  in  hopeless  love. 

"One  morn  I  miss'd  him  on  the  customed  hill, 

Along  the  heath  and  near  his  fav'rite  tree ; 
Another  came  ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill, 

Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he : 

"  The  next,  with  dirges  due  in  sad  array 

Slow  thro'  the  church-way  path  we  saw  him  borne :  — 
Approach  and  read  (for  thou  canst  read)  the  lay 

Grav'd  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged  thorn." 


THE   EPITAPH. 

Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown : 

Fair  science  frown'd  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. 

Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere, 
Heav'n  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send : 

He  gave  to  mis'ry  (all  he  had)  a  tear, 

He  gained  from  Heaven  ('twas  all  he  wish'd)  a  friend. 

No  farther  seek  his  merits  to  disclose. 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 

(There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 


44  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


COLLINS. 
THE  PASSIONS. 

When  Music,  heav'nly  maid,  was  young. 
While  yet  in  early  Greece  she  sung, 
The  Passions  oft,  to  hear  her  shell, 
Throng'd  around  her  magic  cell. 
Exulting,  trembling,  raging,  fainting, 
Possest  beyond  the  Muse's  painting ; 
By  turns  they  felt  the  glowing  mind 
Disturbed,  delighted,  rais'd,  refin'd ; 
Till  once,  'tis  said,  when  all  were  fir'd, 
Fiird  with  fury,  rapt,  inspired. 
From  the  supporting  myrtles  round 
They  snatch'd  her  instruments  of  sound ; 
And,  as  they  oft  had  heard  apart 
Sweet  lessons  of  her  forceful  art, 
Each,  for  madness  rul'd  the  hour. 
Would  prove  his  own  expressive  power. 

First  Fear  his  hand,  its  skill  to  try, 
Amid  the  chords  bewildered  laid. 

And  back  recoiPd,  he  knew  not  why, 
Ev'n  at  the  sound  himself  had  made. 

Next  Anger  rush'd ;  his  eyes,  on  fire, 
In  lightnings  own'd  his  secret  stings ; 

In  one  rude  clash  he  struck  the  lyre. 

And  swept  with  hurried  hand  the  strings. 

With  woeful  measures  wan  Despair, 
Low  sullen  sounds,  his  grief  beguil'd, 

A  solemn,  strange,  and  mingled  air ; 
'Twas  sad  by  fits,  by  starts  'twas  wild. 

But  Thou,  O  Hope,  with  eyes  so  fair. 
What  was  thy  delightful  measure  ? 

Still  it  whisper'd  promis'd  pleasure. 
And  bade  the  lovely  scenes  at  distance  hail! 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  I45 

Still  would  her  touch  the  strain  prolong, 
And  from  the  rocks,  the  woods,  the  vale, 

She  caird  on  Echo  still  thro'  all  the  song ; 
And,  where  her  sweetest  theme  she  chose, 
A  soft  responsive  voice  was  heard  at  ev'ry  close. 

And  Hope  enchanted  smil'd,  and  wav'd  her  golden  hair. 

And  longer  had  she  sung ;  but,  with  a  frown. 

Revenge  impatient  rose : 
He  threw  his  blood-stain'd  sword  in  thunder  down, 
And  with  a  withering  look 
The  war-denouncing  trumpet  took, 
And  blew  a  blast  so  loud  and  dread. 
Were  ne'er  prophetic  sounds  so  full  of  woe. 
And  ever  and  anon  he  beat 
The  doubling  drum  with  furious  heat ; 
And  tho'  sometimes,  each  dreary  pause  between, 
Dejected  Pity  at  his  side 
Her  soul-subduing  voice  applied, 
Yet  still  he  kept  his  wild  unalter'd  mien, 
While  each  strain'd  ball  of  sight  seem'd  bursting  from  his  head. 
Thy  numbers,  Jealousy,  to  naught  were  fix'd. 

Sad  proof  of  thy  distressful  state ; 
Of  diff'ring  themes  the  veering  song  was  mix'd ; 

And  now  it  courted  love,  now  raving  calFd  on  hate. 
With  eyes  uprais'd,  as  one  inspir'd. 
Pale  Melancholy  sate  retir'd. 
And  from  her  wild  sequester'd  seat, 
In  notes  by  distance  made  more  sweet, 
Pour'd  thro'  the  mellow  horn  her  pensive  soul ; 
And,  dashing  soft  from  rocks  around. 
Bubbling  runnels  join'd  the  sound ; 
Thro'  glades  and  glooms  the  mingled  measure  stole, 
Or  o'er  some  haunted  stream  with  fond  delay, 
Round  an  holy  calm  diffusing, 
Love  of  peace  and  lonely  musing. 
In  hollow  murmurs  died  away. 
But,  O !  how  alter'd  was  its  sprightlier  tone, 
When  Cheerfulness,  a  nymph  of  healthiest  hue, 
SCH.  ENG. — 10 


146  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Her  bow  across  her  shoulder  flung, 

Her  buskins  gemm'd  with  morning  dew, 
Blew  an  inspiring  air,  that  dale  and  thicket  rung, 

The  hunter's  call  to  faun  and  dryad  known ! 

The  oak-crowned  sisters  and  their  chaste-eyed  queen, 

Satyrs  and  silvan  boys,  were  seen. 

Peeping  from  forth  their  alleys  green  ; 
Brown  Exercise  rejoic'd  to  hear, 

And  Sport  leapt  up  and  seized  his  beechen  spear. 
Last  came  Joy's  ecstatic  trial : 
He,  with  viny  crown  advancing. 

First  to  the  lively  pipe  his  hand  addrest, 
But  soon  he  saw  the  brisk-awak'ning  viol. 

Whose  sweet  entrancing  voice  he  lov'd  the  best ; 
They  would  have  thought,  who  heard  the  strain. 
They  saw  in  Tempe's  vale  her  native  maids, 
Amidst  the  festal  sounding  shades. 
To  some  unwearied  minstrel  dancing. 

While,  as  his  flying  fingers  kiss'd  the  strings. 

Love  fram'd  with  Mirth  a  gay  fantastic  round ; 

Loose  were  her  tresses  seen,  her  zone  unbound  . 

And  he,  amidst  his  frolic  play. 
As  if  he  would  the  charming  air  repay. 
Shook  thousand  odors  from  his  dewy  wings. 
O  Music,  sphere-descended  maid, 
Friend  of  pleasure,  wisdom's  aid. 
Why,  goddess,  why  to  us  deny'd 
Lay'st  thou  thy  ancient  lyre  aside? 
As  in  that  lov'd  Athenian  bow'r. 
You  learn'd  an  all-commanding  pow'r, 
Thy  mimic  soul,  O  Nymph  endear'd, 
Can  well  recall  what  .then  it  heard. 
Where  is  thy  native  simple  heart, 
Devote  to  virtue,  fancy,  art? 
Arise,  as  in  that  elder  time; 
Warm,  energic,  chaste,  sublime! 
Thy  wonders,  in  that  godlike  age. 
Fill  thy  recording  sister's  page : 
'Tis  said,  and  I  believe  the  tale,   ' 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  147 

Thy  humblest  reed  could  more  prevail, 
Had  more  of  strength,  diviner  rage. 
Than  all  which  charms  this  laggard  age, 
Ev'n  all  at  once  together  found 
Cecilia's  mingled  world  of  sound. 
O  bid  our  vain  endeavors  cease. 
Revive  the  just  designs  of  Greece  ! 
Return  in  all  thy  simple  state  ! 
Confirm  the  tales  her  sons  relate ! 


THE   VISION   OF    MIRZA. 

[from  the  "  SPECTATOR."] 

When  I  was  at  Grand  Cairo,  I  picked  up  several  oriental 
manuscripts  which  I  have  still  by  me.  Among  others  I  met 
with  one  entitled  "The  Vision  of  Mirza,"  which  I  have  read 
over  with  great  pleasure,  and  which  I  have  translated  word 
for  word  as  follows  :  — 

"  On  the  fifth  day  of  the  moon,  which  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  my  forefathers  I  always  keep  holy,  after  having  washed 
myself,  and  offered  up  my  morning  devotions,  I  ascended  the 
high  hills  of  Bagdat,  in  order  to  pass  the  rest  of  the  day  in 
meditation  and  prayer.  As  I  was  here  airing  myself  on  the 
tops  of  the  mountains,  I  fell  into  a  profound  contemplation  on 
the  vanity  of  human  life ;  and  passing  from  one  thought 
to  another,  '  Surely,'  said  I,  '  man  is  but  a  shadow,  and  life 
a  dream.'  Whilst  I  was  thus  musing,  I  cast  my  eyes  towards 
the  summit  of  a  rock  that  was  not  far  from  me,  where  I  discov- 
ered one  in  the  habit  of  a  shepherd,  with  a  little  musical  instru- 
ment in  his  hand.  As  I  looked  upon  him,  he  applied  it  to  his 
lips,  and  began  to  play  upon  it.  The  sound  of  it  was  exceed- 
ing sweet,  and  wrought  into  a  variety  of  tunes  that  were  inex- 
pressibly melodious,  and  altogether  different  from  anything  I 
had  ever  heard.  They  put  me  in  mind  of  those  heavenly  airs 
that  are  played  to  the  departed  souls  of  good  men  upon  their 
first  arrival  in  Paradise,  to  wear  out  the  impressions  of  the  last 


148  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

agonies,  and  qualify  them  for  the  pleasures  of  that  happy  place. 
My  heart  melted  away  in  secret  raptures. 

"I  had  been  often  told  that  the  rock  before  me  was  the 
haunt  of  a  genius ;  and  that  several  had  been  entertained  with 
music  who  had  passed  by  it,  but  never  heard  that  the  musician 
had  before  made  himself  visible.  When  he  had  raised  my 
thoughts  by  those  transporting  airs  which  he  played,  to  taste 
the  pleasures  of  his  conversation,  as  I  looked  upon  him  like  one 
astonished,  he  beckoned  to  me,  and  by  the  waving  of  his  hand 
directed  me  to  approach  the  place  where  he  sat.  I  drew  near 
with  that  reverence  which  is  due  to  a  superior  nature ;  and  as 
my  heart  was  entirely  subdued  by  the  captivating  strains  I  had 
heard,  I  fell  down  at  his  feet  and  wept.  The  genius  smiled 
upon  me  with  a  look  of  compassion  and  affabiHty  that  familiar- 
ized him  to  my  imagination,  and  at  once  dispelled  all  the  fears 
and  apprehensions  with  which  I  approached  him.  He  lifted 
me  from  the  ground,  and  taking  me  by  the  hand,  '  Mirza,'  said 
he,  '  I  have  heard  thee  in  thy  soHloquies  ;  follow  me.' 

"  He  then  led  me  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  rock,  and 
placing  me  on  the  top  of  it,  'Cast  thy  eyes  eastward,'  said  he, 
'and  tell  me  what  thou  seest.'  —  'I  see,'  said  I,  'a  huge  valley, 
and  a  prodigious  tide  of  water  rolling  through  it.'  — 'The  valley 
that  thou  seest,'  said  he,  '  is  the  Vale  of  Misery,  and  the  tide  of 
water  that  thou  seest  is  part  of  the  great  tide  of  eternity.'  — 
'What  is  the  reason,'  said  I,  'that  the  tide  I  see  rises  out  of  a 
thick  mist  at  one  end,  and  again  loses  itself  in  a  thick  mist  at 
the  other?' — 'What  thou  seest,'  said  he,  'is  that  portion  of 
eternity  which  is  called  time,  measured  out  by  the  sun,  and 
reaching  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  its  consummation. 
Examine  now,'  said  he,  'this  sea  that  is  thus  bounded  with 
darkness  at  both  ends,  and  tell  me  what  thou  discoverest  in  it.' 
— '  I  see  a  bridge,'  said  I, '  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  tide.' 
—  'The  bridge  thou  seest,'  said  he,  'is  human  life  ;  consider  it 
attentively.'  Upon  a  more  leisurely  survey  of  it,  I  found  it 
consisted  of  threescore  and  ten  entire  arches,  with   sev€^ral 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  1 49 

broken  arches,  which  added  to  those  that  were  entire,  made  up 
the  number  about  an  hundred.  As  I  was  counting  the  arches, 
the  genius  told  me  that  this  bridge  consisted  at  first  of  a  thou- 
sand arches ;  but  that  a  great  flood  swept  away  the  rest,  and 
left  the  bridge  in  the  ruinous  condition  I  now  beheld  it. 
'  But  tell  me  farther,'  said  he,  *  what  thou  discoverest  on  it.'  — 
'I  see  multitudes  of  people  passing  over  it,'  said  I,  'and  a 
black  cloud  hanging  on  each  end  of  it'  As  I  looked  more 
attentively,  I  saw  several  of  the  passengers  dropping  through 
the  bridge  into  the  great  tide  that  flowed  underneath  it,  and 
upon  farther  examination,  perceived  there  were  innumerable 
trapdoors  that  lay  concealed  in  the  bridge,  which  the  passen- 
gers no  sooner  trod  upon,  but  they  fell  through  them  into  the 
tide,  and  immediately  disappeared.  These  hidden  pitfalls 
were  set  very  thick  at  the  entrance  of  the  bridge,  so  that 
throngs  of  people  no  sooner  broke  through  the  cloud,  but 
many  of  them  fell  into  them.  They  grew  thinner  towards  the 
middle,  but  multiplied  and  lay  closer  together  towards  the  end 
of  the  arches  that  were  entire. 

"  There  were  indeed  some  persons  —  but  their  number  was 
very  small  —  that  continued  a  kind  of  hobbling  march  on  the 
broken  arches,  but  fell  through  one  after  another,  being  quite 
tired  and  spent  with  so  long  a  walk. 

"  I  passed  some  time  in  the  contemplation  of  this  wonderful 
structure,  and  the  great  variety  of  objects  which  it  presented. 
My  heart  was  filled  with  a  deep  melancholy  to  see  several  drop- 
ping unexpectedly  in  the  midst  of  mirth  and  jollity,  and  catch- 
ing at  everything  that  stood  by  them  to  save  themselves.  Some 
were  looking  up  towards  the  heavens  in  a  thoughtful  posture, 
and  in  the  midst  of  a  speculation  stumbled  and  fell  out  of  sight. 
Multitudes  were  very  busy  in  the  pursuit  of  bubbles  that  glit- 
tered in  their  eyes  and  danced  before  them;  but  often  when 
they  thought  themselves  within  the  reach  of  them,  their  footing 
failed  and  down  they  sunk.  In  this  confusion  of  objects,  I 
observed  some  with  scimiters  in  their  hands,  who  ran  to  and  fro 


ISO  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

upon  the  bridge,  thrusting  several  persons  on  trapdoors  which 
did  not  seem  to  lie  in  their  way,  and  which  they  might  have 
escaped  had  they  not  been  thus  forced  upon  them. 

"  The  genius,  seeing  me  indulge  myself  on  this  melancholy 
prospect,  told  me  I  had  dwelt  long  enough  upon  it.  *Take 
thine  eyes  off  the  bridge,'  said  he,  '  and  tell  me  if  thou  yet 
seest  anything  thou  dost  not  comprehend.'  Upon  looking  up, 
*What  mean,'  said  I,  'those  great  flights  of  birds  that  are  per- 
petually hovering  about  the  bridge,  and  settHng  upon  it  from 
time  to  time  ?  I  see  vultures,  harpies,  ravens,  cormorants,  and 
among  many  other  feathered  creatures  several  Httle  winged 
boys,  that  perch  in  great  numbers  upon  the  middle  arches.'  — 
'These,'  said  the  genius,  'are  Envy,  Avarice,  Superstition, 
Despair,  Love,  with  the  like  cares  and  passions  that  infect 
human  life.' 

"  I  here  fetched  a  deep  sigh.  *  Alas,'  said  I,  '  man  was  made 
in  vain  !  how  is  he  given  away  to  misery  and  mortality  !  tortured 
in  life,  and  swallowed  up  in  death  ! '  The  genius  being  moved 
with  compassion  towards  me,  bid  me  quit  so  uncomfortable  a 
prospect.  '  Look  no  more,'  said  he,  '  on  man  in  the  first  stage 
of  his  existence,  in  his  setting  out  for  eternity ;  but  cast  thine 
eye  on  that  thick  mist  into  which  the  tide  bears  several  genera- 
tions of  mortals  that  fall  into  it.'  I  directed  my  sight  as  I  was 
ordered,  and  (whether  or  no  the  good  genius  strengthened  it 
with  any  supernatural  force,  or  dissipated  part  of  the  mist  that 
was  before  too  thick  for  the  eye  to  penetrate)  I  saw  the  valley 
opening  at  the  farther  end,  and  spreading  forth  into  an  immense 
ocean,  that  had  a  huge  rock  of  adamant  running  through  the 
midst  of  it,  and  dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts.  The  clouds 
still  rested  on  one  half  of  it,  insomuch  that  I  could  discover 
nothing  in  it :  but  the  other  appeared  to  me  a  vast  ocean 
planted  with  innumerable  islands,  that  were  covered  with  fruit 
and  flowers,  and  interwoven  with  a  thousand  little  shining  seas 
that  ran  among  them.  I  could  see  persons  dressed  in  glorious 
habits  with  garlands  upon  their  heads,  passing  among  the  trees, 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH.  151 

lying  down  by  the  sides  of  fountains,  or  resting  on  beds  of 
flowers ;  and  could  hear  a  confused  harmony  of  singing  birds, 
falling  waters,  human  voices,  and  musical  instruments.  Glad- 
ness grew  in  me  upon  the  discovery  of  so  delightful  a  scene. 
I  wished  for  the  wings  of  an  eagle,  that  I  might  fly  away  to 
those  happy  seats  ;  but  the  genius  told  me  there  was  no  passage 
to  them,  except  through  the  gates  of  death,  that  I  saw  opening 
every  moment  upon  the  bridge.  '  The  islands,'  said  he,  '  that 
lie  so  fresh  and  green  before  thee,  and  with  which  the  whole 
face  of  the  ocean  appears  spotted  as  far  as  thou  canst  see,  are 
more  in  number  than  the  sands  on  the  seashore ;  there  are 
myriads  of  islands  behind  those  which  thou  here  discoverest, 
reaching  farther  than  thine  eye,  or  even  thine  imagination,  can 
extend  itself.  These  are  the  mansions  of  good  men  after  death, 
who,  according  to  the  degree  and  kinds  of  virtue  in  which  they 
excelled,  are  distributed  among  these  several  islands,  which 
abound  with  pleasures  of  different  kinds  and  degrees,  suitable 
to  the  reUshes  and  perfections  of  those  who  are  settled  in  them  ; 
every  island  is  a  Paradise  accommodated  to  its  respective 
inhabitants.  Are  not  these,  O  Mirza,  habitations  worth  con- 
tending for  ?  Does  not  Hfe  appear  miserable,  that  gives  thee 
opportunities  of  earning  such  a  reward  ?  Is  death  to  be  feared, 
that  will  convey  thee  to  so  happy  an  existence?  Think  not 
man  was  made  in  vain,  who  has  such  an  eternity  reserved  for 
him.'  I  gazed  with  inexpressible  pleasure  on  these  happy 
islands.  At  length,  said  I,  '  Show  me  now,  I  beseech  thee,  the 
secrets  that  lie  hid  under  those  dark  clouds  which  cover  the 
ocean  on  the  other  side  of  the  rock  of  adamant.'  The  genius 
making  me  no  answer,  I  turned  me  about  to  address  myself  to 
him  a  second  time,  but  I  found  that  he  had  left  me ;  I  then 
turned  again  to  the  vision  which  I  had  been  so  long  contem- 
plating :  but  instead  of  the  roUing  tide,  the  arched  bridge,  and 
the  happy  islands,  I  saw  nothing  but  the  long  hollow  valley  of 
Bagdat,  with  oxen,  sheep,  and  camels  grazing  upon  the  sides 
of  it." 


CHAPTER   VI. 
ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES. 

Originality  Essential.  —  Figures  have  been  defined 
and  illustrated,  not  with  a  view  to  giving  the  student 
something  new  to  put  into  his  writing ;  for  the  charm  of 
any  production  would  be  entirely  lost,  if  the  writer 
should  feel  that  having  just  finished  a  chapter  on  figures 
of  speech,  he  must  keep  on  the  lookout  for  a  chance 
to  put  in  a  simile,  or  ask  himself  what  would  be  a  good 
metaphor  for  this  thought,  or  how  this  idea  could  be 
best  personified.  Originality  and  spontaneity  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  happy  expression,  and  no  author 
could  inform  us  how  he  found  his  bright  ideas,  or  by 
what  rule  he  constructed  the  lines  which  have  since 
become  familiar  quotations  to  us  all. 

But  genius  must  receive  its  inspiration  from  some 
source;  and  it  is  possible  that  reading  and  reflecting 
upon  the  examples  and  selections  given  may  awaken  in 
the  mind  of  some  pupils  the  power  needing  only  to  be 
aroused  and  guided. 

Figures  as  Stumbling-blocks.  —  Few  men  have  written 
well  when  very  young.  Shakespeare  became  the  wonder 
of  all  ages  after  years  of  writing,  so  aptly  named  the 
**  workshop  period."  The  youthful  work  of  most  poets 
is  valuable  mainly  for  completing  the  collections  of  their 
poems.  Figurative  language  has  been  a  stumbling- 
block  for  all  grades  of  genius.     Eminent  critics  have 

152 


ERRORS  IN  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES.  1 53 

shown  this  to  be  true  even  with  the  princes  of  song. 
When  the  schoolboy,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  be- 
gins to  put  his  thoughts  in  pictured  phrase,  in  lifting 
his  eyes  toward  the  sky  for  inspiration,  he  takes  them 
from  the  stony  road,  and  thus  too  often  falls. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  figures  are  frequently  found  in 
the  work  of  promising  scholars ;  for  it  takes  boldness  for 
a  boy  to  give  his  imagination  any  play  at  all.  It  would 
be  a  great  wrong  to  ridicule  any  genuine  outburst  of 
youthful  enthusiasm,  and  therefore  careful  criticism  and 
guidance  are  necessary  here. 

Errors  Classified.  —  One  pupil  is  prone  to  pick  up 
and  weave  into  his  writing  all  the  old  hackneyed  fig- 
ures he  can  find ;  another  pupil  will  mix  his  figurative 
expressions  so  they  can  with  difficulty  be  understood ; 
another  will  think  that  he  is  doing  well,  if  only  he  can 
put  his  words  in  high-sounding  flowery  phrase,  without 
regard  to  its  fitness  for  the  expression  of  his  meager 
thoughts. 

But  where  a  figure  fails  to  suggest  the  thought  as 
well  as  the  literal  expression  would  state  it,  the  figure 
does  not  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
intended,  and  hence  is  useless ;  for  not  only  is  no  force 
gained,  but  clearness  also  is  lost. 

Errors  of  this  sort  can  be  definitely  pointed  out,  and 
suggestions  can  be  given  for  their  correction,  only  after 
the  pupil  has  learned  the  names  and  definitions  of  the 
various  figures  which  it  is  possible  to  use  or  misuse. 
We  shall  now  classify  the  faults  most  frequently  made 
in  the  use  of  figures. 

I.  When  the  relation  between  the  words  used  and  the 
thought  to   be   suggested  is  too  remote   or  obscure^   the 


154  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

figure  fails  to  add  clearness  or  force y  and  is  consequently 

useless. 

Ex.     "  From  harmony,  from  heav'nly  harmony 
This  universal  frame  began ; 
From  harmony  to  harmony 
Through  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  Man." 

Dryden  doubtless  expresses  a  valuable  thought  in  the 
last  lines  of  the  foregoing  extract ;  but  does  the  meta- 
phor employed  add  clearness  or  force  .-* 

The  following  is  from  a  college  periodical :  — 

'*  Still  in  my  youth  my  love  was  torn  away. 
O  broken  lute  !  O  shattered  glass  of  wine  ! 
They  gave  her  to  a  husband  worthier  far 

Of  her  enchantment ;  I  was  bound  to  clay, 
But  re-inspired  by  her,  his  soul  divine, 

Touched  the  hot  orbit  of  my  worshiped  star." 

A  well-known   clergyman  of  New  York  prayed   as 

follows :  — 

"  O  Lord,  we  cannot  put  our  finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails ; 
but  thou  dost  ever  put  thy  finger  into  the  folds  of  our  hearts." 

Just  what  did  he  mean  t 

II.  Metaphors  lose  their  power  of  suggesting  thoughts 
when  several  are  mixed  in  the  one  sentence,  when  one  is 
used  within  another,  or  when  they  are  carried  into  minute 
detail. 

The  commonest  example  of  mixed  metaphor  is 
Shakespeare's  line,  — 

"Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  trouble." 

Though  the  line  occurs  in  one  of  the  best  of  Shake- 
spearean paragraphs,  it  certainly  seems  incongruous  to 
speak  of  taking  arms  against  a  sea. 


ERRORS   IN  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES.  1 55 

EXAMPLES. 

I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  out  into  bolder  strain. 

Mr.  Harter's  scheme  of  national  and  state  banking  in  a  sort 
of  financial  wedlock,  I  fear,  will  be  a  Pandora's  box. 

And  now  some  light  on  the  real  character  of  Lord  Mohun 
begins  to  crop  out. 

Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  into  the  thick 
gloom. 

He  never  opened  his  mouth  but  to  put  his  foot  in  it. 

He  was  unable  to  steer  his  ship  over  the  rough  road  of  public 
sentiment. 

III.  Certain  very  expressive  figures^  chiefly  metaphors, 
have  been  used  so  much  that  they  have  become  worn  out, 
or  trite.  It  is  well  to  avoid  the  use  of  these,  for  they 
no  longer  have  the  charm  of  freshness  or  originality. 

Examples  of  such  figures  are  :  — 
Narrow  bed  for  grave. 
Lily  white  hand,  ruby  lips,  ivory  brow. 
The  flower  of  youth. 
The  journey  of  Hfe. 
The  springtime  of  life. 
Honeyed  lips. 
Brave  as  a  lion. 
Cunning  as  a  fox. 
Last  resting  place. 
Dewy  eve. 

Blue  vaulted  heavens. 
The  golden  orb  of  day. 


156  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

IV.  The  warning  most  necessary  here  is  against  the 
use  of  figures  too  expressive  for  the  thought  and  the  con- 
sequent ridiculous  impression  produced. 


EXAMPLES. 

L 

ANN    ARBOR. 

Enthroned  upon  fair  hills  the  city  sips 
From  Huron's  breath,  or  Michigan's  dew  brewed, 
Ambrosial  draughts.     Nor  giant  oak  nor  elm 
Bedims  her  view.     Below,  ambitious  shoots 
A  generation  new,  their  stripling  forms 
Admire,  vainglorious,  in  the  murky  sheen 
The  river  mirrors,  from  its  slothful  breast. 

CASCADE   GLEN. 

The  aromatic  breath  of  nature  fills 

These  avenues,  whose  shafts,  leaf-capitoled. 

Re-echo  shout  and  gladsome  song,  or  chant 

The  M^mnon  anthem  of  the  day.     Here  is 

The  laboratory  of  the  Universe. 

Here,  heaven  her  alchemy  unfolds.     The  rill 

In  cascade  leaping,  rainbows  every  beam 

Of  straggling  day,  its  wild  ambition  drowns 

In  mimic  dance  and  eddying  whirl  across 

The  bosom  of  the  stream  below,  then  drones 

To  list  the  willows  gossip  a  romance. 

The  following  extract  from  the  New  York  "  Sun " 
shows  that  even  with  George  Washington  for  a  theme, 
extravagant  figures  may  produce  a  ridiculous  impres- 
sion :  — 


ERRORS   IN  THE  USE  OF  FIGURES.  1 57 

Of  all  the  eloquence  that  fell  from  the  lips  of  speakers  yester- 
day, there  was  none  other  to  compare  with  that  of  the  President 
of  this  Club. 

"  Gentlemen  :  —  It  has  been  said  that  when  two  or  three  men 
gather  together  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  the  Lord  is  in  their 
midst.  We  have  met  to-night  to  celebrate  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant events  that  ever  constituted  an  epoch  in  the  annals  of 
history  —  the  birthday  of  Washington." 

Then  Mr.  P.  went  on  :  '^  Col.  Ingersoll,  in  his  recent  great 
speech  on  Lincoln,  said  :  *  Washington  is  now  only  a  steel 
engraving,'  but  I,  for  one,  think  he  is  something  more. 

"  He  speaks  to  us  from  the  canvas ;  he  lives  in  monumental 
brass  and  marble  ;  his  memory  is  enshrined  in  millions  of  warm 
and  patriotic  hearts ;  and  up  from  our  cloud-capped  hills  and 
sunny  vales  shall  ever  arise  the  swelUng  anthem  of  praise  of  him 
who  gave  to  his  country  more  of  Fame's  immortal  dower  than 
any  king,  conqueror,  or  emperor  that  ever  walked  God's  broad 
earth  or  bore  the  honors  that  stalked  upon  it. 

"  True,  he  did  not,  like  the  God-like  Webster  and  eloquent 
Clay,  the  applause  of  Hstening  Senates  command,  nor,  like  the 
great  astronomer,  read  the  beautiful  and  blazing  mystery  of  the 
stars,  nor  yet,  like  Franklin,  call  down  the  red  lightning  from  its 
far-off  home,  that  it  might  become  the  swift-winged  messenger 
of  thought,  but  in  the  broader  and  higher  atmosphere  of 
patriotism  and  freedom  he  won  a  corona  of  fame  brighter  than 
any  that  ever  glittered  in  the  crowns  of  Assyrian  kings,  or 
blazed  on  the  breastplate  of  old  Aaron." 

Mr.  P.  concluded  his  speech  like  this  :  "  Let  us  then,  my 
friends,  cherish  the  remembrance  of  Washington,  and  wear 
him  in  our  heart  of  hearts,  for  ages  may  pass  away  ere  the  world 
will  look  upon  his  like  again.  .  .  .  Flow  on,  dark  rolling  Poto- 
mac, and  sing  the  praises  of  the  hero  who  sleeps  upon  your 
banks  *  a  sleep  that  knows  no  waking.'  Ye  zephyrs  of  morning 
that  once  kissed  the  manly  brow  of  Washington,  whisper  in 
each  listening  ear  his  name,  and  ye  blithe  birds  whose  wild 


158  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

notes  chimed  with  the  ripple  of  the  wavelets  and  floated  on  the 
morning  air,  chant  ye  a  requiem  sad  and  sweet  for  the  departed 
soldier,  patriot,  and  statesman." 

There  was  a  burst  of  applause  when  this  speech  ended. 
Mr.  P.  bowed  modestly  and  sat  down.  Several  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  club  came  forward  and  congratulated  him. 


Part   II. 

COMPOSITION. 
CHAPTER   I. 

PRELIMINARY   SUGGESTIONS. 

Difficulties.  —  Part  I.  of  this  book  has  for  its  almost 
exclusive  aim  the  correction  of  errors  in  the  pupil's 
written  work,  and  the  improvement  of  his  style.  It  has 
been  assumed,  for  the  purpose  of  criticism,  that  the 
essay  has  already  been  written.  Nothing  has  been 
said  with  a  view  to  helping  the  pupil  put  his  thoughts 
into  writing.  Therefore,  though  the  foregoing  pages 
have  been  carefully  studied,  though  all  the  rules  have 
been  committed  to  memory,  and  even  though  skill  has 
been  acquired  in  applying  them  in  criticism,  unless  the 
pupil  possesses  a  natural  gift  for  composition,  the 
knowledge  thus  far  acquired  will  be  useful  only  in  criti- 
cising the  work  of  others.  As  school  pupils  find  diffi- 
culties in  composition,  and  have  many  false  ideas  with 
reference  to  it,  some  instruction  is  necessary  to  over- 
come the  difficulties  and  correct  these  ideas.  Accord- 
ingly Part  II.  furnishes  suggestions  which  it  is  hoped 
may  prove  useful  in  starting  work  of  composition. 

Naturalness.  —  At  the  outset  it  will  be  well  to  correct 
an  erroneous  but    common    impression   among   young 

^  159 


l6o  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

people,  to  the  effect  that  they  must  have  for  writing  a 
set  of  ideas  and  words  quite  different  from  those  used 
in  conversation.  If  the  pupil  starts  on  this  principle, 
he  will  find  that  the  hitherto  unused  part  of  his  brain 
refuses  to  work  when  suddenly  called  upon  to  furnish 
material. 

If  one  feels  that  he  must  write  ia_a  different  way 
from  that  in  which  he  talks,  or  upon  thoughts  which 
he  never  has  except  when  taking  up  a  pen,  learning  to 
write  in  his  own  tongue  will  be  as  difficult  as  learning 
to  speak  in  a  new  language.  Indeed,  he  will  never  be 
happy  in  any  composition  work,  until  he  karns  that  he 
should  not  approach  it  as  if  it  were  an  extraordinary 
occupation  which  called  for  the  exercise  of  a  new  set  of 
faculties. 

On  the  contrary,  the  student  should  restrict  himself 
in  all  that  he  writes  to  simplicity  and  naturalness  of 
expression,  by  recording  with  his  pen  what  he  would 
say  if  conversing  upon  the  subject  on  which  he  is  writ- 
ing. This,  however,  is  not  the  mood  in  which  most 
pupils  begin  to  write.  On  account  of  the  desire  to  pro- 
duce a  masterpiece  of  thought  and  expression,  the  flow 
of  words  so  easy  and  unstudied  in  conversation  refuses 
the  aid  of  conscious  effort,  and  often  ceases  when  the  pen 
is  taken  in  hand. 

Doubtless  many  young  people  have  often  experi- 
enced this  sudden  chill  and  paralysis  of  the  powers 
of  expression.  But  would  this  paralysis  set  in,  if 
the  writer  felt  that  in  tracing  his  words  in  ink,  he 
were  doing  nothing  more  than  talking  with  his  pen  ? 
This  is  exactly  what  is  done  in  writing  a  letter ;  for 
if  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  addressed  were 
present,  the  message  of  the  letter  would  be  delivered 


PRELIMINARY^    SUGGESTIONS.  l6l 

verbally ;  and  for  this  reason  letter  writing  is  one  of  the 
best  means  for  improvement  in  composition. 

Carefulness.  —  It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  caution 
most  pupils  against  mistaking  naturalness  for  careless- 
ness. If  one  is  naturally  careless,  his  composition  should 
be  unnatural  to  the  extent  of  carefulness  in  expression 
and  penmanship. 

By  insisting  on  carefulness  of  expression,  we  mean 
that  all  that  has  been  learned  in  studying  the  chapters 
on  "  Correction  of  Errors  and  Clearness  "  should  be  put 
into  practice  in  every  exercise.  No  mistake  in  grammar 
should  be  allowed  to  pass  uncorrected,  and  every  sen- 
tence obscure  in  meaning  or  capable  of  double  sig- 
nification should  be  made  clear.  Try  always  to  make 
sentences  correct  and  clear  as  you  write  them  ;  but  if  you 
fail  to  make  them,  so  at  firsts  do  not  hesitate  to  alter  them. 
Make  the  alteration  as  neatly  as  you  can  ;  but  if  the  cor- 
rection spoils  the  looks  of  the  page,  copy  it. 

Spelling.  —  Correct  spelling  will  come  naturally  to 
some  ;  to  others,  it  will  not.  If  one  belongs  to  the  latter 
class,  he  should  spare  no  pains  to  make  up  for  the  defi- 
ciency, and  he  should  cultivate  a  pride  which,  notwith- 
standing the  labor  that  may  be  necessary,  will  prevent 
any  misspelled  word  from  ever  appearing  in  his  writing. 
The  ability  to  spell  with  accuracy  can  be  acquired  by 
every  one.  A  poor  speller  should  always  have  a  diction- 
ary at  his  side  when  writing ;  and  if  he  will  refer  to  it 
for  every  word  concerning  the  spelling  of  which  he  is 
not  certain,  a  few  years  will  place  him  on  the  same 
footing  as  his  more  gifted  brother. 

Neatness.  —  Besides  the  cautions  for  accuracy  of  ex- 
pression and  spelling,  it  will  be  well  to  add  a  few 
instructions  as  to  neatness.     Neatness  in  penmanship 

SCH.  ENG.  —  II 


l62  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

also  seems  to  be  a  natural  gift.  Some  possess  it,  and 
will  need  no  directions  here.  Others  will  find  that 
neatness  is  the  most  difficult  to  acquire  of  all  virtues. 
For  these  a  few  suggestions  will  be  beneficial. 

Ink  is  a  difficult  material  to  use,  and  will  cause  much 
damage  at  the  hands  of  the  unskillful.  It  is  best 
therefore  to  have  a  solid  inkstand  that  cannot  be  easily 
upset ;  it  should  have  a  wide  mouth,  so  that  the  penholder 
will  not  rub  against  the  edge,  and  thus  smear  the  fingers. 
For  this  reason  never  use  a  bottle  for  an  inkstand.  It 
may  seem  an  insignificant  matter  to  mention  here,  but 
it  will  save  untold  trouble  if  you  always  dip  the  pen  but 
a  little  way  into  the  ink,  or  with  a  motion  of  the  wrist 
throw  back  the  surplus  ink  into  the  inkstand.  Nine 
tenths  of  the  blots  come  from  an  over-full  pen.  The  rest 
can  be  avoided  by  never  attempting  to  write  without 
plenty  of  good  fresh  blotting  paper,  by  having  ample 
room  for  one's  writing  paper  and  arm,  and  by  keeping 
the  desk  free  from  loose  scraps  that  may  be  pushed 
over  the  paper. 


CHAPTER   II. 

LETTER  WRITING. 

The  Best  Practice  in  Composition. — The  practice  of 
letter  writing,  as  has  already  been  said,  is  of  great  help 
toward  securing  the  much-needed  naturalness  of  expres- 
sion ;  and  more  improvement  in  the  power  of  writing 
has  come  through  this  means  than  through  any  other. 
The  freedom  and  unreserve  which  belong  to  this  kind  of 
composition,  and  the  fact  that  what  is  written  will  be 
read  by  another,  with  interest  and  not  with  a  criticising 
spirit,  give  to  it  a  peculiar  scope,  and  are  well  adapted 
to  bring  out  the  otherwise  unused  powers  of  the  writer. 

Letters  in  Literature.  —  English  literature  abounds 
with  instances  in  which  familiar  letters  from  friend  to 
friend,  or  between  kindred,  meant  only  for  a  single  reader 
or  for  a  household  circle,  have  been  rescued  from  such 
obscurity  and  set  in  the  full  light  which  shines  on  the 
classic  page.  The  letters  of  Horace  Walpole,  of  which 
he  says  —  at  least  of  those  to  Sir  Horace  Mann  —  that 
they  were  written  very  carelessly  by  a  young  man  and 
never  intended  for  the  public,  are  among  the  most  in- 
structive and  entertaining  of  the  many  instructive  and 
entertaining  books  which  exhibit  to  us  the  life  of  England 
during  the  last  century. 

The  private  correspondence  of  Dr.  Arnold  and  the 
inimitable  letters  of  Dickens  are  familiar  illustrations 
of  the  power  and  permanence  of  the  most  unstudied 

163 


1 64  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

efforts  of  the  pen  when  it  is  directed  by  an  impulse 
from  the  heart  and  the  brain,  in  the  service  of  friend- 
ship and  affection.  A  bright,  cheerful  letter,  in  which 
the  everyday  scenes  of  home,  or  some  festive  commemo- 
ration, or  marked  event,  or  the  experiences  of  school,  or 
college,  or  travel,  are  set  down  in  the  fresh  glow  of  the 
occasion  which  prompts  it,  is  often  stamped  with  the 
best  traits  of  a  true  style. 

Voluntary  Letters.  —  By  letter  writing  we  do  not  mean 
exercises  written  in  class  at  the  command  of  a  teacher, 
and  put  in  the  form  of  a  letter  by  addressing  an  imagi- 
nary person  at  the  beginning,  and  implying  affection  or 
respect  over  your  signature  at  the  close.  It  will  be  just 
as  hard  to  find  ideas  for  such  letters  as  for  any  other 
written  exercise;  and  though  it  may  be  necessary  to 
assign  letters  to  be  written  in  class,  in  order  to  teach 
the  pupil  the  correct  form  of  a  letter,  and  the  proper 
method  of  arranging  the  various  broken  lines,  these  are 
not  the  letters  to  which  we  refer  as  the  best  means  of 
developing  a  good  style.  The  greatest  benefit  will  come 
from  those  letters  which  one  writes  of  his  own  free  will, 
when  the  pen  is  taken  in  hand  without  the  slightest 
effort  of  mind  to  find  thoughts,  but  because  the  writer 
has  a  message  to  deliver  to  a  person  to  whom  he  cannot 
speak. 

The  advantage  of  voluntary  letter  writing  lies  in  the 
fact  that  one  can  by  that  exercise,  more  than  by  any 
other,  make  direct  effort  at  improvement.  The  object 
of  all  study  of  rhetoric  is  to  learn  to  express  ideas  in 
writing  so  that  they  can  be  readily  understood  by  another. 
In  a  letter,  the  writer  knows  exactly  what  he  wishes  to 
say.  When,  therefore,  one  has  written  a  real  letter,  he 
can,  by  criticising  it,  make  a  truer  estimate  of  his  ability  to 


LETTER  WRITING.  1 65 

express  his  ideas  correctly,  than  he  can  by  criticising  an 
essay  in  which  he  is  not  so  certain  of  what  he  wishes 
to  say. 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   LETTER   WRITING. 

I.  Subject  Matter.  —  As  to  what  you  should  say  in  a 
letter,  there  can  be  but  one  sound  direction :  Say  what 
you  have  in  mind ;  and  do  not  try  to  lengthen  out  a  let- 
ter by  searching  for  something  more  to  write  about.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  begin  with  an  apology  or  to  add  any 
excuse  for  closing.  There  are  few  exercises  in  writing 
more  profitable  than  trying  to  express  a  given  idea  in 
as  few  words  as  possible.  Short  letters  are  blessings, 
afford  as  much  opportunity  for  skill  as  longer  letters 
do,  and  are  proverbially  the  stumbling-blocks  of  the 
careless ;  as  the  following  example  will  show. 

A  young  Englishman,  while  at  an  inn  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, received  a  note  inviting  him  to  accompany  a 
gentleman  on  a  trip  to  Rome.  The  answer  to  the  note 
was  as  given  below  :  — 

"The  Honorable  Mr.  N.  presents  his  compliments  to  Sir 
Wm.  F.,  and  as  I  am  going  to  Rome,  he  will  be  very  happy  to 
take  a  seat  in  your  carriage." 

II.  Form  of  a  Letter.  —  It  will  be  necessary  to  give 
specific  directions  as  to  the  proper  form  in  which  the 
letter  should  be  written.  We  have  seen  that  the  usage 
of  educated  people  is  the  law  of  language :  it  is  also  the 
law  of  form  in  various  kinds  of  writing  and  printing. 

A  complete  letter  consists  of  seven  parts,  and  edu- 
cated people  generally  follow  the  arrangement  which 
experience  has  discovered  to  be  the  best  for  appearance 
and  intelligibility.     The  seven  parts  are : 


1 66  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

I.    The  Headings  which  tells  when  and  where  the 

letter  is  written. 
II.    The  Address ^  which  gives  the  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  the  letter  is  sent. 

III.  The  Salutation,  or  greeting,  by  which  the  mes- 

sage is  prefaced. 

IV.  The  Letter  Proper,  or  message. 

V.    The  Complimentary    Close,   or   polite   remarks  at 
the  close  of  the  letter. 
VI.    The  Signature  of  the  person  writing  the  letter. 
VII.    The  Superscription,  or  direction,  for  the  delivery 
of  the  letter. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    ARRANGING    THE    PARTS    OF    A    LETTER. 

The  appearance  of  a  letter  depends  not  only  on  the 
writer's  skill  in  penmanship,  but  also  on  the  arrange- 
ment of  its  parts.  It  is  therefore  important  that  both 
skillful  and  unskillful  penmen,  especially  the  latter, 
should  adhere  strictly  to  an  approved  form,  such  as  is 
given  in  the  following  directions. 

In  all  written  work,  the  pupil  should  leave  on  the  left 
side  of  the  page  a  margin  of  uniform  width.  The  first 
line  of  each  paragraph  should  be  indented  one  half  inch 
from  the  margin. 

I.  The  Heading  should  be  written  on  the  first  line  of 
the  paper,  on  the  right-hand  side.  Commas  should  be 
placed  between  all  the  items,  and  periods  after  all  abbre- 
viations. If  the  heading  is  long,  the  words  indicating 
the  place  should  be  on  one  line,  and  the  date  on  the 
next.  The  second  line  should  begin  at  the  right  of  the 
beginning  of  the  first  line.  When  the  paper  is  not 
ruled,  the  heading  should  be  written  about  one   inch 


LETTER   WRITING.  1 6/ 

from  the  upper  edge  of  the  sheet,  and  should  never  be 
crowded  or  written  in  a  cramped  handwriting. 

II.  The  Address.  —  Leave  one  blank  line  between 
the  heading  and  the  address.  Beginning  at  the  margin, 
write  the  name  of  the  person  addressed  with  the  proper 
title  ;  on  the  next  line,  beginning  a  little  to  the  right  of 
the  margin,  the  number,  street,  town,  and  state.  Use 
two  lines  for  these  items,  if  necessary,  to  avoid  crowd- 
ing. The  second  line  should  begin  twice  as  far  from  the 
margin  as  the  line  above.  With  large  cities  the  state 
may  be  omitted.  Commas  should  be  placed  between 
all  items,  and  periods  after  all  abbreviations.  All 
words  in  the  name  or  title  of  any  person,  and  all  names 
of  places,  should  begin  with  capitals. 

In  letters  of  friendship  the  address  may  be  placed 
before  the  salutation,  in  accordance  with  the  direction 
given,  or  on  the  second  line  below  the  signature,  com- 
mencing at  the  margin. 

III.  The  Salutation.  —  On  the  next  line,  beginning 
at  the  margin,  write  the  salutation.  After  the  saluta- 
tion put  a  colon.  If  the  letter  is  begun  on  the  same 
line,  put  a  comma  and  dash.  In  addressing  a  friend 
or  relative,  use  any  term  of  endearment  that  you  wish. 
In  addressing  a  stranger,  the  common  salutation  is 
Dear  Sir  or  My  dear  Sir ;  or  in  case  of  a  woman,  mar- 
ried or  single.  Dear  Madam  or  My  dear  Madam.  For 
more  than  one  person,  Gentlemen  is  more  frequently 
used  than  Dear  Sirs.    In  addressing  women,  use  Ladies. 

IV.  The  Letter  may  begin  on  the  same  line  as  the 
salutation,  or  on  the  next  line  directly  beneath  the  colon. 
If  three  lines  have  been  used  for  the  address,  the  letter 
should  begin  on  the  same  line  as  the  salutation,  to  avoid 
too  many  broken  lines. 


l68  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

V.  The  Complimentary  Close  should  be  written  on 
the  next  line  after  the  end  of  the  letter,  should  begin 
considerably  to  the  right  of  the  page,  and,  unless 
crowded  by  so  doing,  under  the  last  word  of  the  line 
above.  The  first  word  should  begin  with  a  capital; 
and  the  last  word  should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 
Yours  truly  or  Yours  very  truly  is  the  ordinary  polite 
ending  to  a  business  letfer.  Yours  faithfully  or  Yours 
sincerely  is  used  where  there  is  acquaintance  or  friend- 
ship between  the  person  writing  and  the  one  addressed. 
Respectfully  is  used  where  the  writer  acknowledges 
authority  in  the  one  to  whom  he  is  writing.  Affection- 
atefyy  and  other  terms  of  endearment,  should  be  used 
only  when  relationship  or  friendship  warrants  them. 
It  is  immaterial  whether  you  write  Yours  very  truly  or 
Very  truly  yours^  or  Yours  sincerely  or  Sincerely  yours^ 
etc.  The  complimentary  close  may  be  turned  into  a 
sentence  by  placing  before  it,  /  remain^  I  am,  or  other 
words;  as,  /  remain^  my  dear  Sir,  with  respect^  Yours 
very  truly. 

VI.  The  Signature  should  be  written  on  the  line 
below  the  complimentary  close,  beginning  to  the  right 
of  the  beginning  of  the  line  above.  The  signature 
should  be  followed  by  a  period. 

VII.  The  Superscription,  or  Direction,  is  written  on 
the  outside  of  the  envelope.  The  name  and  title  should 
be  in  the  middle  of  the  envelope.  The  words  used  to 
indicate  the  destination  of  the  letter  (number,  street, 
town,  county,  state,  country,  etc.)  should  be  divided 
into  appropriate  lines,  and  written  below  the  name,  each 
line  beginning  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  beginning  of 
the  line  above.  Commas  should  be  put  between  all 
items,  and  periods  after  all  abbreviations. 


LETTER  WRITING.  1 69 

Punctuation  and  Capitals.  —  There  are  no  special 
rules  in  letter  writing  for  punctuation  or  capitals. 
In  all  writing,  commas  are  put  wherever  a  word  is 
omitted,  and  between  words  in  the  same  construction 
not  connected  by  conjunctions,  and  periods  always  fol- 
low abbreviations.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence, 
the  first  word  of  every  line  indented  from  the  margin, 
and  every  word  standing  for  a  proper  name  or  title, 
should  in  all  forms  of  writing  begin  with  capital  letters. 
One  of  the  most  frequent  errors  in  letter  writing  con- 
sists in  using  capitals  when  there  is  no  reason  for  such 
use ;  as.  My  Dear  Sir,  Very  Truly  Yours,  for  My  dear 
Sir,   Very  truly  yours. 

When  unruled  paper  is  used,  double  the  ordinary 
space  should  be  left  where  the  foregoing  directions  call 
for  blank  lines. 

Practical  Value.  —  Letter  writing  has  been  placed 
first  in  the  list  of  exercises  because  it  is  the  best  means 
for  securing  natural  expression  of  thought;  but  it  is  also 
true  that  letter  writing  is  in  itself  an  important  end  to 
be  kept  in  view  in  the  study  of  rhetoric.  The  majority 
of  those  that  study  this  book  will  make  use  of  what  they 
learn  from  it  chiefly  in  writing  letters.  Essays  and 
compositions  will  be  left  behind  with  school  and  college ; 
but  every  one  engaged  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life 
must  be  continually  writing  letters.  Moreover,  the 
ability  to  write  a  clear,  well-expressed  letter  has  a 
high  market  value  in  the  business  world,  and  saves 
time  and  energy  for  every  one  concerned;  but  the 
delay  caused  by  a  poorly  written  or  obscurely  expressed 
letter  will  in  many  cases  result  to  the  detriment  of  the 
writer. 


170  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

EXAMPLES   OF   COMPLETE   LETTER. 

(I) 

3  Band  ^t,,  Jttw-  ya\A. 

S^ttdQ^b  faiyW-duC  wib  (yy  dcLd'yyb'Qy  €%- 
pbt^Qy  tw-a  knA/yuL\,uL  (200^  mjO'lt'St^  aj 
8a^(mJ^     '^  STbcftl/^Jh    ^^aTn/Joxy^vU/yyo    a/yuL 

ycmA^h  tvidAf; 

CC.  Hi,  hcuv-VQ.. 

(a) 

cAeAA^  liaik,  jwyi&  7;  '^^' 

jCcmyod9i&&v-lttt^  c/t.f. 

ht/Jolj  ta  niyj  jovnvub  t&tt&V;  cmcC  i/ro  (i@y- 
(yyo  yau,  ta-ifiammv-. 

of.  &.  ^aA/oaW: 


LETTER   WRITING.  171 

EXAMPLES    OF   DIRECTION. 


Tyi&Q^QA^. 

8  Band  ^t. 

of.  y. 

&a. 

^%e.ntan 


Re.v: 

f'f. 

^. 

^yn.itk,  A^. 

M 

RCv-&vdaC& 
MCa. 

1/2  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Important  Caution. — The  estimation  in  which  a  per- 
son is  held  by  those  among  whom  he  lives  depends 
very  largely  on  the  letters  he  writes,  more  so,  perhaps, 
than  on  what  he  says.  The  exact  words  of  a  con- 
versation are  difficult  to  recall,  and  a  cautious  person 
hesitates  to  form  an  opinion  from  the  quotation  of  a 
conversation ;  but  the  words  of  a  letter  stand  exactly  as 
they  are  written,  and  challenge  criticism.  Flaws  can  be 
picked  in  them  at  leisure.  Remember  that  what  you 
write  in  a  letter  may  be  read  by  those  who  you  never 
expected  would  see  it,  and  that  whatever  you  say  in  a 
letter  cannot  be  easily  taken  back.  It  is  wise  to  avoid 
rash  statements  even  when  writing  to  the  closest  friends. 
Business  men  find  it  necessary  to  preserve  a  copy  of 
every  important  letter,  in  order  that  the  next  letter  may 
be  written  in  the  light  of  what  has  been  said,  and  in 
order  that  there  may  be  no  alteration  by  dishonest 
persons.  Even  though  one  is  not  in  business,  it  will  be 
wise  for  him  to  keep  a  copy  of  every  letter  that  he  con- 
siders of  serious  interest  to  himself.  All  these  cautions 
are  suggested  by  the  Latin  sentence,  Littera  scripta 
manet  (the  written  letter  remains). 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  letter  writing  in  every 
branch  of  life,  and  on  account  of  the  opportunity  af- 
forded for  improvement  in  writing,  you  are  urged  to 
put  into  practice  in  every  letter  that  you  write  all  that 
you  have  learned  from  this  chapter. 

The  following  letter  is  taken  from  Trevelyan's  "  Life 
of  Lord  Macaulay." 

We  can  excuse  Macaulay's  abuse  of  mathematics  on 
account  of  the  entertaining  way  in  which  he  expresses  it. 
He  afterwards  regretted  his  lack  of  mathematical  power. 


LETTER  WRITING.  1 73 

Cambridge, 
Wednesday, ,  1818. 

My  dear  Mother :  King,  I  am  absolutely  certain,  would  take 
no  more  pupils  on  any  account.  And,  even  if  he  would,  he  has 
numerous  applicants  with  prior  claims.  He  has  already  six, 
who  occupy  him  six  hours  in  the  day,  and  is  likewise  lecturer 
to  the  college.  It  would,  however,  be  very  easy  to  obtain  an 
excellent  tutor.  Lefevre  and  Malkin  are  men  of  first-rate 
mathematical  ability,  and  both  of  our  college. 

I  can  scarcely  bear  to  write  on  mathematics  or  mathemati- 
cians. Oh  for  words  to  express  my  abomination  of  that  science, 
if  a  name  sacred  to  the  useful  and  embellishing  arts  may  be 
applied  to  the  perception  and  recollection  of  certain  properties 
in  numbers  and  figures  !  Oh  that  I  had  to  learn  astrology,  or 
demonology,  or  school  divinity ;  oh  that  I  were  to  pore  over 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  to  adjust  the  relation  of  Entity  with  the 
two  Predicaments,  so  that  I  were  exempted  from  this  miserable 
study  !  "  Discipline  "  of  the  mind  !  Say  rather  starvation, 
confinement,  torture,  annihilation  !  But  it  must  be.  I  feel 
myself  becoming  a  personification  of  algebra,  a  living  trigono- 
metrical canon,  a  walking  table  of  logarithms.  All  my  percep- 
tions of  elegance  and  beauty  gone,  or  at  least  going.  By  the 
end  of  the  term  my  brain  will  be  "as  dry  as  the  remainder 
biscuit  after  a  voyage."  Oh  to  change  Cam  for  Isis  !  But  such 
is  my  destiny ;  and,  since  it  is  so,  be  the  pursuit  contemptible, 
below  contempt,  or  disgusting  beyond  abhorrence,  I  shall  aim 
at  no  second  place.  But  three  years  !  I  cannot  endure  the 
thought.  I  cannot  bear  to  contemplate  what  I  must  have  to 
undergo.     Farewell,  then.  Homer  and  Sophocles  and  Cicero. 

"  Farewell,  happy  fields. 
Where  joy  forever  reigns !     Hail,  horrors,  hail, 
Infernal  world !  " 

How  does  it  proceed?     Milton's  descriptions  have  been  driven 
out  of  my  head  by  such  elegant  expressions  as  the  following : 


1/4                                  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 
Cos.  ^  =  I h 


Tan.  a  +  b  = 


1-2       1.2-3.4      1.2.3.4.5.6 
Tan.  a  +  Tan.  b 


I  —  Tan.  a  +  Tan.  b 


My  classics  must  be  Woodhouse,  and  my  amusements  summing 
an  infinite  series.  Farewell ;  and  tell  Selina  and  Jane  to  be 
thankful  that  it  is  not  a  necessary  part  of  female  education  tc 
get  a  headache  daily  without  acquiring  one  practical  truth  or 
beautiful  image  in  return.  Again,  and  with  affectionate  love 
to  my  father,  farewell  wishes  your  most  miserable  and  mathe- 
matical son, 

T.  B.  Macaulay. 


CHAPTER    III. 
EXERCISES   FROM  EXTRACTS. 

Composition  generally  Distasteful.  —  It  is  probable 
that  many  pupils  from  every  class  will  appreciate  the 
assistance  they  have  received  from  instruction  on  letter 
writing,  that  they  will  note  the  improvement  in  their 
letters,  and  that  they  will  take  intense  satisfaction  in 
the  consciousness  of  having  learned  something  of  value 
in  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  However,  the  problem 
of  writing  an  essay  is  still  unsolved ;  and  it  is  true  that 
the  composition  has  often  been  made  a  bugbear,  haunt- 
ing the  pupil's  life  whenever  the  thought  is  suggested 
or  the  name  mentioned.  If  one  could  hear  all  the  com- 
plaints made  at  home,  and  read  all  the  thoughts  of  a 
class  from  which  an  essay  is  due,  he  would  be  sorely 
tempted  to  agree  with  the  pupil's  views,  that  composi- 
tions do  more  harm  than  good,  by  destroying  the  temper 
and  worrying  the  life  of  well-meaning  boys  and  girls. 

Essay  Writing  Necessary.  —  Fortunately  or  unfortu- 
nately, it  is  quite  impossible  to  do  away  with  essays  and 
compositions ;  for  ability  in  writing  can  be  secured  only 
by  constant  practice.  The  few  letters  that  a  boy  or 
girl  has  to  write  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  month  do 
not  furnish  a  significant  fraction  of  the  practice  neces- 
sary to  gain  proficiency ;  and  one  quickly  wearies  of 
writing  letters  to  imaginary  persons,  or  on  make-believe 
occasions.  The  teacher,  therefore,  cannot  do  away  with 
the  aid  of  composition  exercises ;  but  some  way  must 

175 


176  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

be  found  for  removing  the  difficulties  that  often  beset 
the  pupil's  path  in  this  line  of  work;  and  with  that 
end  in  view,  let  us  analyze  the  complaints  most  com- 
monly heard,  get  at  the  real  difficulties,  and,  if  possible, 
overcome  them. 

Common  Complaints.  —  If  members  of  the  class  are 
left  to  choose  their  own  subject,  the  majority  will  at 
once  complain  that  they  are  unable  to  find  anything  to 
write  about.  If  the  subject  is  chosen  for  them,  the 
general  complaint  is  that  they  have  nothing  to  say  on 
that  subject.  Under  all  circumstances  there  will  be 
found  some  who  maintain  that  they  *'  never  could  write 
a  composition,  anyway,"  and  that  they  "don't  see  the 
use  in  it,"  because  they  have  nothing  worth  saying. 

Complaints  Analyzed  and  Answered.  —  We  have  al- 
ready learned  that  the  usefulness  of  composition  exer- 
cises lies  in  the  practice  in  writing  which  they  afford. 
Moreover,  such  practice  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
attaining  proficiency  in  writing,  and  this  attainment  is 
the  foremost  requisite  of  an  education. 

In  reviewing  the  complaints  just  enumerated,  it  is 
clear  that  the  main  difficulties  of  composition  lie  not  so 
much  in  the  pupil's  inability  to  put  his  thoughts  in 
writing,  as  in  the  absence  of  suitable  thoughts.  What 
man  or  woman,  even  though  possessing  great  genius  as 
an  author,  could  write  anything  worth  reading  on  a  sub- 
ject in  which  he  had  little  interest,  and  on  which  he 
had  meager  information  ?  Arouse  in  any  intelligent 
youth  a  keen  interest  in  a  topic  within  his  mental  grasp, 
show  him  where  to  find  information  on  that  topic,  fill 
his  mind  with  ideas,  so  that  he  is  able  to  converse  with 
intelligence  on  the  subject,  and  if  he  can  handle  a  pen 
and  spell,  he  will  be  able  to  write  an  intelligent  compo- 


EXERCISES   FROM   EXTRACTS.  1 77 

sition.  In  other  words,  nine  tenths  of  the  difficulties 
lie  in  the  pupil's  mistaken  idea  that  he  can  write  on 
a  subject  before  he  has  secured  any  information  on  that 
subject,  or  that  he  must  start  to  write  his  thoughts  on 
paper  before  he  has  any  thoughts  in  his  mind. 

Thoughts,  then,  being  the  first  requisite  in  essay  writ- 
ing, we  must  first  of  all  study  the  various  methods  of 
furnishing  ourselves  with  ideas. 

I.     REPRODUCTION. 

Method  Explained.  —  The  simplest  method  of  secur- 
ing ideas  for  an  exercise  in  composition  is  to  take  a 
short  extract  from  the  writings  of  another,  read  it  over 
until  we  have  become  familiar  with  the  subject  matter, 
and  then  try  to  reproduce  in  writing  the  thoughts  of 
the  original  passage.  It  is  necessary  to  become  suffi- 
ciently familiar  with  the  extract  to  retain  a  clear  impres- 
sion of  the  thoughts  expressed ;  but,  of  course,  if  the 
matter  is  learned  by  heart,  the  exercise  of  writing  is 
simply  one  in  spelling  and  penmanship.  In  order  to 
remember  the  matter  without  committing  sentences  to 
memory,  it  is  well  to  read  a  short  passage  over  but  a 
single,  time,  or  longer  passages  two  or  three  times,  mak- 
ing brief  notes  that  will  suggest  each  paragraph  with- 
out giving  its  exact  words. 

Advantages  from  Exercises  in  Reproduction.  —  The 
advantages  of  exercises  in  reproduction  are  to  be  seen 
at  a  glance.  In  the  first  place,  the  student  starts  his 
work  at  once,  knowing  exactly  what  to  do ;  and  besides 
having  thoughts  in  his  mind,  he  has  in  his  memory  the 
sound  of  well-formed  sentences  and  well-chosen  words. 
If   an   occasional    phrase   or   sentence   is   remembered 

SCH.  ENG. —  12 


178  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

word  for  word,  writing  this  and  weaving  it  in  with  other 
sentences  of  his  own  making  will  improve  the  quality 
of  his  writing;  and  he  will,  thus,  unconsciously  set  a 
higher  standard  for  his  own  work.  This  method  of 
learning  to  write  has  been  of  great  use  to  many 
students ;  and  it  is  of  especial  interest  to  American 
boys  to  know  that  Benjamin  Franklin,  whose  success 
in  many  branches  of  life  was  due  to  indomitable  perse- 
verance, acquired  his  proficiency  in  writing  by  the  use 
of  this  method,  which  is  described  in  the  following 
extract  from  his  "Autobiography." 

After  relating  the  circumstances  of  a  debate  which 
he  was  carrying  on  with  one  named  Collins,  Franklin 
proceeds :  — 

"  Three  or  four  letters  of  a  side  had  passed,  when  my  father 
happened  to  find  my  papers  and  read  them.  Without  entering 
into  the  discussion,  he  took  occasion  to  talk  to  me  about  the 
manner  of  my  writing ;  observed  that,  though  I  had  the  advan- 
tage of  my  antagonist  in  correct  spelling  and  pointing  (which 
I  owed  to  the  printing-house),  I  fell  far  short  in  elegance  of 
expression,  in  method,  and  in  perspicuity,  of  which  he  con- 
vinced me  by  several  instances.  I  saw  the  justice  of  his 
remarks,  and  thence  grew  more  attentive  to  the  manner  in 
writing,  and  determined  to  endeavor  at  improvement. 

"About  this  time  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  the  'Specta- 
tor.' It  was  the  third.  I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them. 
I  bought  it,  read  it  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with  it.  I 
thought  the  writing  excellent,  and  wished,  if  possible,  to  imitate 
it.  With  this  view,  I  took  some  of  the  papers,  and  making 
short  hints  of  the  sentiments  in  each  sentence,  laid  them  by  a 
few  days,  and  then,  without  looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  com- 
plete the  papers  again,  by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at 
length,  and  as  fully  as  it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any 
suitable  words  that  should  come  to  hand.     Then  I  compared 


EXERCISES   FROM   EXTRACTS.  1 79 

my  '  Spectator  *  with  the  original,  discovered  some  of  my  faults, 
and  corrected  them.  But  I  found  I  wanted  a  stock  of  words, 
or  a  readiness  in  recollecting  and  using  them,  which  I  thought 
I  should  have  acquired  before  that  time  if  I  had  gone  on  mak- 
ing verses ;  since  the  continual  occasion  for  words  of  the  same 
import,  but  of  different  length,  to  suit  the  measure,  or  of  dif- 
ferent sound  for  the  rhyme,  would  have  laid  me  under  a  con- 
stant necessity  of  searching  for  variety,  and  also  have  tended 
to  fix  that  variety  in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master  of  it. 
Therefore,  I  took  some  of  the  tales  and  turned  them  into 
verse ;  and  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten  the 
prose,  turned  them  back  again.  I  also  sometimes  jumbled  my 
collections  of  hints  into  confusion,  and  after  some  weeks 
endeavored  to  reduce  them  into  the  best  order,  before  I  began 
to  form  the  full  sentences  and  complete  the  paper.  This  was 
to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement  of  thoughts.  By  com- 
paring my  work  afterwards  with  the  original,  I  discovered 
many  faults  and  amended  them ;  but  I  sometimes  had  the 
pleasure  of  fancying  that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small  import, 
I  had  been  lucky  enough  to  improve  the  method  or  the  lan- 
guage, and  this  encouraged  me  to  think  I  might  possibly  in 
time  come  to  be  a  tolerable  EngUsh  writer,  of  which  I  was 
extremely  ambitious.  My  time  for  these  exercises,  and  for 
reading,  was  at  night,  after  work,  or  before  it  began,  in  the 
morning,  or  on  Sundays,  when  I  contrived  to  be  in  the  print- 
ing-house alone,  evading  as  much  as  I  could  the  common 
attendance  on  public  worship  which  my  father  used  to  exact 
of  me  when  I  was  under  his  care,  and  which,  indeed,  I  still 
thought  a  duty,  though  I  could  not,  as  it  seemed  to  me,  afford 
time  to  practice  it." 

The  foregoing  passage  from  Franklin's  "  Autobiog- 
raphy," and  the  following  extract  from  Addison,  may 
be  used  as  the  first  passages  given  the  class  for  exer- 
cises in  reproduction. 


l80  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

A   SUNDAY   AT    SIR   ROGER   DE   COVERLEY's. 

[from  "the  spectator."] 

I  am  always  very  well  pleased  with  a  country  Sunday ;  and 
think,  if  keeping  holy  the  seventh  day  were  only  a  human  in- 
stitution, it  would  be  the  best  method  that  could  have  been 
thought  of  for  the  poHshing  and  civilizing  of  mankind.  It  is 
certain  the  country  people  would  soon  degenerate  into  a  kind 
of  savages  and  barbarians,  were  there  not  such  frequent  returns 
of  a  stated  time,  in  which  the  whole  village  meet  together  with 
their  best  faces,  and  in  their  cleanliest  habits,  to  converse  with 
one  another  upon  indifferent  subjects,  hear  their  duties  explained 
to  them,  and  join  together  in  adoration  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
Sunday  clears  away  the  rust  of  the  whole  week,  not  only  as  it 
refreshes  in  their  minds  the  notions  of  religion,  but  as  it  puts 
both  the  sexes  upon  appearing  in  their  most  agreeable  forms, 
and  exerting  all  such  quaUties  as  are  apt  to  give  them  a  figure 
in  the  eye  of  the  village.  A  country  fellow  distinguishes  him- 
self as  much  in  the  churchyard,  as  a  citizen  does  upon  the 
'Change,  the  whole  parish  politics  being  generally  discussed  in 
that  place  either  after  sermon  or  before  the  bell  rings. 

My  friend  Sir  Roger,  being  a  good  churchman,  has  beautified 
the  inside  of  his  church  with  several  texts  of  his  own  choosing  : 
he  has  likewise  given  a  handsome  pulpit-cloth,  and  railed  in 
the  communion-table  at  his  own  expense.  He  has  often  told 
me,  that  at  his  coming  to  his  estate  he  found  his  parishioners 
very  irregular;  and  that  in  order  to  make  them  kneel  and 
join  in  the  responses,  he  gave  every  one  of  them  a  hassock 
and  a  Common  Prayer-Book  :  and  at  the  same  time  employed 
an  itinerant  singing-master,  who  goes  about  the  country  for 
that  purpose,  to  instruct  them  rightly  in  the  tunes  of  the 
Psalms ;  upon  which  they  now  very  much  value  themselves, 
and  indeed  outdo  most  of  the  country  churches  that  I  have 
ever  heard. 


EXERCISES  FROM  EXTRACTS.  l8l 

As  Sir  Roger  is  landlord  to  the  whole  congregation,  he  keeps 
them  in  very  good  order,  and  will  suffer  nobody  to  sleep  in  it 
besides  himself;  for  if  by  chance  he  has  been  surprised  into  a 
short  nap  at  sermon,  upon  recovering  out  of  it  he  stands  up 
and  looks  about  him,  and  if  he  sees  anybody  else  nodding, 
either  wakes  them  himself,  or  sends  his  servant  to  them.  Sev- 
eral other  of  the  old  knight's  particularities  break  out  upon 
these  occasions  :  sometimes  he  will  be  lengthening  out  a 
verse  in  the  singing  Psalms,  half  a  minute  after  the  rest 
of  the  congregation  have  done  with  it ;  sometimes,  when  he 
is  pleased  with  the  matter  of  his  devotion,  he  pronounces 
"  Amen  "  three  or  four  times  to  the  same  prayer ;  and  some- 
times stands  up  when  everybody  else  is  upon  their  knees, 
to  count  the  congregation,  or  see  if  any  of  his  tenants  are 
missing. 

I  was  yesterday  very  much  surprised  to  hear  my  old  friend, 
in  the  midst  of  the  service,  calling  out  to  one  John  Matthews 
to  mind  what  he  was  about,  and  not  disturb  the  congregation. 
This  John  Matthews  it  seems  is  remarkable  for  being  an  idle 
fellow,  and  at  that  time  was  kicking  his  heels  for  his  diversion. 
This  authority  of  the  knight,  though  exerted  in  that  odd  man- 
ner which  accompanies  him  in  all  circumstances  of  life,  has  a 
very  good  effect  upon  the  parish,  who  are  not  polite  enough  to 
see  anything  ridiculous  in  his  behavior ;  besides  that  the  gen- 
eral good  sense  and  worthiness  of  his  character  make  his 
friends  observe  these  little  singularities  as  foils  that  rather  set 
off  than  blemish  his  good  qualities. 

As  soon  as  the  sermon  is  finished,  nobody  presumes  to  stir 
till  Sir  Roger  is  gone  out  of  the  church.  The  knight  walks 
down  from  his  seat  in  the  chancel  between  a  double  row  of  his 
tenants,  that  stand  bowing  to  him  on  each  side ;  and  every 
now  and  then  he  inquires  how  such  a  one's  wife,  or  mother,  or 
son,  or  father,  do,  whom  he  does  not  see  at  church ;  which 
is  understood  as  a  secret  reprimand  to  the  person  that  is 
absent. 


1 82  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  following  notes  on  the  foregoing  extract  explain 
the  method  suggested  for  aiding  the  memory,  and  will 
be  found  helpful :  — 

1.  Advantage  of  Sunday,  if  only  a  human  institution  ; 
civilizing ;  cleanliest  habits ;  duties,  adoration ;  rest  of 
week ;  churchyard  and  'Change. 

2.  Sir  Roger,  the  church,  pulpit-cloth,  prayer-book, 
psalm  tunes. 

3.  Sir  Roger  in  church :  order,  nap,  singing,  amen, 
counting  congregation. 

4.  Incident  of  John  Matthews  :  idle  fellow  ;  effect  on 
parish ;   singularities. 

5.  Sermon  finished,  row  of  tenants,  inquiries. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  At  first  it  may  be  best  for  the  teacher  to 
read  short  extracts  aloud  to  the  class,  as  many  times  as  it  seems 
necessary,  and  make  notes  upon  the  blackboard  according  to  the 
capacity  of  the  class.  Newspaper  clippings  and  accounts  of  current 
events  in  which  the  pupils  are  likely  to  be  interested  may  be  often 
used  to  advantage ;  but  care  should  be  taken  to  select  passages  that 
are  models  of  good  style  ;  for  this  will  unconsciously  be  copied  even 
from  a  single  reading.  If,  as  the  author  of  this  work  assumes  in  the 
preface,  part  of  the  English  work  of  the  class  consists  in  reading  an 
English  classic,  the  book  used  for  that  purpose  will  provide  many 
examples  for  reproduction.  The  passages  given  above  from  Frank- 
lin's "Autobiography"  and  from  the  "  Spectator,"  may  be  used  for 
the  first  exercises  in  reproduction. 


II.     SUBSTITUTION. 

Method  Explained.  —  A  most  excellent  exercise  in 
composition  may  be  found  in  taking  a  passage  of  good 
prose  similar  to  one  chosen  for  an  exercise  in  repro- 
duction, reading  it  over  carefully  several  times,  substi- 
tuting for  the  original  theme  or  subject  one  similar  to  it, 


EXERCISES   FROM   EXTRACTS.  1 83 

and  adapting  from  memory  the  language  of  the  original 
extract  to  the  treatment  of  the  new  theme.  This  exer- 
cise is  especially  suitable  for  descriptions.  For  example, 
the  student  may  read  from  Irving's  "Sketch  Book"  the 
description  of  the  Catskill  Mountains,  and  use  it  as  a 
model  for  describing  other  mountainous  scenery  with 
which  he  is  familiar. 

In  "  Bracebridge  Hall "  there  is  this  description  of 
Ready-Money  Jack  :  — 

READY-MONEY   JACK. 

On  the  skirts  of  the  neighboring  village  there  lives  a  kind  of 
small  potentate,  who,  for  aught  I  know,  is  a  representative  of  one 
of  the  most  ancient  legitimate  lines  of  the  present  day ;  for  the 
empire  over  which  he  reigns  has  belonged  to  his  family  time 
out  of  mind.  His  territories  comprise  a  considerable  number 
of  fat  acres ;  and  his  seat  of  power  is  an  old  farmhouse  where 
he  enjoys,  unmolested,  the  stout  oaken  chair  of  his  ancestors. 
The  personage  to  whom  I  allude  is  a  sturdy  old  yeoman  of  the 
name  of  John  Tibbets,  or  rather  Ready-Money  Jack  Tibbets,  as 
he  is  called  throughout  the  neighborhood. 

The  first  place  where  he  attracted  my  attention  was  in  the 
churchyard  on  Sunday,  where  he  sat  on  a  tombstone  after 
service,  with  his  hat  a  little  on  one  side,  holding  forth  to  a 
small  circle  of  auditors,  and,  as  I  presumed,  expounding 
the  law  and  the  prophets,  until  on  drawing  a  little  nearer,  I 
found  he  was  only  expatiating  on  the  merits  of  a  brown  horse. 
He  presented  so  faithful  a  picture  of  a  substantial  English 
yeoman,  such  as  he  is  often  described  in  books,  heightened, 
indeed,  by  some  little  finery  pecuUar  to  himself,  that  I  could 
not  but  take  note  of  his  whole  appearance. 

He  was  between  fifty  and  sixty,  of  a  strong,  muscular  frame, 
and  at  least  six  feet  high,  with  a  physiognomy  as  grave  as  a 
lion's,  and  set  off  with  short,  curling,  iron-gray  locks.      His 


1 84  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

shirt  collar  was  turned  down,  and  displayed  a  neck  covered 
with  the  same  short,  curling,  gray  hair ;  and  he  wore  a  colored 
silk  neckcloth,  tied  very  loosely,  and  tucked  in  at  the  bosom, 
with  a  green  paste  brooch  on  the  knot.  His  coat  was  of  dark- 
green  cloth,  with  silver  buttons,  on  each  of  which  was  engraved 
a  stag  with  his  own  name,  John  Tibbets,  underneath.  He  had 
an  inner  waistcoat  of  figured  chintz,  between  which  and  his 
coat  was  another  of  scarlet  cloth  unbuttoned.  His  breeches 
were  also  left  unbuttoned  at  the  knees,  not  from  any  slovenli- 
ness, but  to  show  a  broad  pair  of  scarlet  garters.  His  stock- 
ings were  blue,  with  white  clocks ;  he  wore  large  silver  shoe- 
buckles  ;  a  broad  paste  buckle  in  his  hatband ;  his  sleeve 
buttons  were  gold  seven-shilling  pieces ;  and  he  had  two  or 
three  guineas  hanging  as  ornaments  to  his  watch  chain. 

On  making  some  inquiries  about  him,  I  gathered  that  he  was 
descended  from  a  line  of  farmers  that  had  always  lived  on  the 
same  spot,  and  owned  the  same  property ;  and  that  half  of  the 
churchyard  was  taken  Up  with  the  tombstones  of  his  race.  He 
has  all  his  Ufe  been  an  important  character  in  the  place.  When 
a  youngster,  he  was  one  of  the  most  roaring  blades  of  the 
neighborhood.  No  one  could  match  him  at  wrestling,  pitch- 
ing the  bar,  cudgel  play,  and  other  athletic  exercises.  Like 
the  renowned  Pinner  of  Wakefield,  he  was  the  village  cham- 
pion ;  carried  off  the  prize  at  all  the  fairs,  and  threw  his  gaunt- 
let at  the  country  round.  Even  to  this  day  the  old  people 
talk  of  his  powers,  and  undervalue,  in  comparison,  all  heroes  of 
the  green  that  have  succeeded  him;  nay,  they  say  that  if 
Ready-Money  Jack  were  to  take  the  field  even  now,  there  is  no 
one  could  stand  before  him. 

When  Jack's  father  died,  the  neighbors  shook  their  heads, 
and  predicted  that  young  Hopeful  would  soon  make  way  with 
the  old  homestead;  but  Jack  falsified  all  their  predictions. 
The  moment  he  succeeded  to  the  paternal  farm  he  assumed  a 
new  character,  took  a  wife,  attended  resolutely  to  his  affairs, 
and  became  an  industrious,  thrifty  farmer.     With  the  family 


EXERCISES  FROM  EXTRACTS.  1 85 

property  he  inherited  a  set  of  old  family  maxims,  to  which  he 
steadily  adhered.  He  saw  to  everything  himself;  put  his  own 
hand  to  the  plow ;  worked  hard ;  ate  heartily ;  slept  soundly ; 
paid  for  everything  in  cash  down ;  and  never  danced  except 
he  could  do  it  to  the  music  of  his  own  money  in  both  pockets. 
He  has  never  been  without  a  hundred  or  two  pounds  in  gold 
by  him,  and  never  allows  a  debt  to  stand  unpaid.  This  has 
gained  him  his  current  name,  of  which,  by  the  by,  he  is  a  little 
proud ;  and  has  caused  him  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  very 
wealthy  man  by  all  the  village. 

Notwithstanding  his  thrift,  however,  he  has  never  denied 
himself  the  amusements  of  life,  but  has  taken  a  share  in  every 
passing  pleasure.  It  is  his  maxim,  that  *'  he  that  works  hard 
can  afford  to  play."  He  is,  therefore,  an  attendant  at  all  the 
country  fairs  and  wakes,  and  has  signalized  himself  by  feats 
of  strength  and  prowess  on  every  village  green  in  the  shire. 
He  often  makes  his  appearance  at  horse  races,  and  sports  his 
half-guinea  and  even  his  guinea  at  a  time  ;  keeps  a  good  horse 
for  his  own  riding,  and  to  this  day  is  fond  of  following  the 
hounds,  and  is  generally  in  at  the  death. 

He  is  a  regular  frequenter  of  the  village  inn,  the  landlady 
having  been  a  sweetheart  of  his  in  early  life,  and  he  having 
always  continued  on  kind  terms  with  her.  He  seldom,  how- 
ever, drinks  anything  but  a  draught  of  ale ;  smokes  his  pipe, 
and  pays  his  reckoning  before  leaving  the  taproom.  Here  he 
*^  gives  his  little  senate  laws;"  decides  bets,  which  are  gener- 
ally referred  to  him  ;  determines  upon  the  character  and  quality 
of  horses ;  and  indeed  plays  now  and  then  the  part  of  a  judge 
in  settling  petty  disputes  between  neighbors,  which  otherwise 
might  have  been  nursed  by  country  .attorneys  into  tolerable 
lawsuits.  Jack  is  very  candid  and  impartial  in  his  decisions, 
but  he  has  not  a  head  to  carry  a  long  argument,  and  is  very  apt 
to  get  perplexed  and  out  of  patience  if  there  is  much  pleading. 
He  generally  breaks  through  the  argument  with  a  strong  voice. 


1 86  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

and  brings  matters  to  a  summary  conclusion,  by  pronouncing 
what  he  calls  the  "  upshot  of  the  business,"  or,  in  other  words, 
"  the  long  and  short  of  the  matter." 


Of  late  years  the  old  fellow  has  begun  to  take  the  world 
easily;  he  works  less  and  indulges  in  greater  leisure,  his  son 
having  grown  up,  and  succeeded  to  him  both  in  the  labors  of 
the  farm  and  the  exploits  of  the  green.  Like  all  sons  of  dis- 
tinguished men,  however,  his  father's  renown  is  a  disadvantage 
to  him,  for  he  can  never  come  up  to  public  expectation. 
Though  a  fine  active  fellow  of  three  and  twenty,  and  quite  the 
"  cock  of  the  walk,"  yet  the  old  people  declare  he  is  nothing 
like  what  Ready- Money  Jack  was  at  his  time  of  life.  The 
youngster  himself  acknowledges  his  inferiority,  and  has  a  won- 
derful opinion  of  the  old  man,  who  indeed  taught  him  all  his 
athletic  accomplishments,  and  holds  such  a  sway  over  him,  that 
I  am  told,  even  to  this  day,  he  would  have  no  hesitation  to 
take  him  in  hands,  if  he  rebelled  against  paternal  government. 

The  foregoing  extract  having  been  taken  as  a  model, 
the  following  description  of  "The  Village  Cobbler" 
was  written  in  accordance  with  the  method  just  ex- 
plained :  — 

THE    VILLAGE    COBBLER. 

There  is  a  cobbler  in  the  little  town  of  Crosby  Cross-roads 
who  might  be  classified  as  one  of  those  persons  called  "  char- 
acters." His  name  is  James  Harrison,  but  he  is  commonly 
known  in  the  village  by  that  of  Jim. 

The  first  time  that  he  attracted  my  attention,  was  one  Sunday 
morning  in  church,  when,  in  the  first  hymn,  I  was  nearly 
deafened  by  a  deep  bass  voice,  a  couple  of  pews  back  of  me, 
bellowing  forth  the  hymn  in  a  manner  truly  wonderful. 


EXERCISES   FROM    EXTRACTS.  1 8/ 

Jim  is  a  typical  old-fashioned  cobbler,  about  sixty  years  of 
age.  He  is  above  the  average  height,  and  quite  broad  and 
strong  for  his  years.  His  face  is  one  of  those  broad,  Ger- 
man types,  with  a  large  mouth,  deep-set  eyes,  and  hooked 
nose.  He  has  a  short,  iron-gray  beard,  and  what  hair  he 
possesses  is  gray  and  rather  curly.  He  was  dressed,  on  that 
day,  in  the  ordinary  Sunday  manner  of  a  farmer;  that  is,  his 
clothes  were  far  too  big  for  him,  and  looked  as  though  they 
might  have  been  made  of  pasteboard. 

My  curiosity  once  aroused,  I  determined  to  find  out  some- 
thing about  him,  so  one  or  two  days  after  I  dropped  into  his 
shop,  and  had  a  long  talk  with  the  old  fellow. 

He  lives  in  an  ordinary  country  house,  painted  white,  with 
brown  blinds.  In  front  is  a  garden,  in  the  shape  of  a  square, 
bordered  with  a  scraggy  hedge  of  boxwood,  which  boasts  a 
couple  of  flower  beds  of  dried  and  withered  sunflowers  and 
geraniums.  His  shop,  in  the  wing  of  the  house,  is  a  small 
room,  with  a  stove  in  the  center,  and  the  bench  and  stool 
where  Jim  works  in  one  corner.  The  whitewashed  walls  are 
decorated  with  long  shelves  of  old  and  dusty  shoes,  the  soles  of 
which,  as  they  gaze  down  upon  the  visitor,  one  may  imagine, 
bespeak  the  character  and  habits  of  their  owners.  Here  the 
thick  hobnailed  shoe  of  some  plowman  seems  to  smile  at 
you,  as  if  well  contented  with  its  goodly  supply  of  leather,  and 
then  you  may  see  the  poor  remains  of  the  once  gorgeous  ball 
slippers  of  some  country  belle,  thin  and  old  now,  and  seemingly 
tired  of  their  gay  and  frivolous  life. 

On  the  day  of  which  I  speak,  Jim  was  very  talkative,  and 
unfolded  to  me  his  whole  history.  It  seems  that  he  was  the 
son  of  a  French  carpenter,  brought  up  and  married  on  the 
other  side,  who  had  immigrated  to  this  country  to  be  employed, 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  in  the  navy  yard  at  Philadelphia. 

Jim  had  been  born  on  the  voyage  over,  but  he  still  maintains 
that  he  must  be  an  American,  because,  as  he  says,  "  he'd  'eared 
tell  that  he  was  born  on  the  last  half  of  the  journey."     Jim, 


1 88  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

when  he  was  about  seventeen,  came  from  Philadelphia  to 
Crosby  Cross-roads,  to  learn  the  trade  of  shoemaking ;  and 
afterwards,  as  near  as  I  could  understand,  had  worked  at  his 
trade  in  about  every  city  in  the  Union.  This  was  long  before 
the  civil  war. 

Jim  always  had  a  taste  for  hard  cider,  and,  of  late  years,  has 
been  freely  indulging  himself.  So,  if  he  is  not  at  home,  he  is 
sure  to  be  found  at  the  "  Black  Swan,"  a  tavern  two  or  three 
miles  below  Crosby  Cross-roads.  In  fact  he  now  frequently 
spends  the  night  off  "  rabbit-shooten,"  as  he  says,  with  his  dog 
*'  Colonel,"  a  forlorn  cur,  which  snaps  and  growls  at  anybody 
but  his  owner.  So  much  time,  indeed,  does  Jim  spend  away, 
that  if  any  one,  on  going  into  his  shop,  did  not  know  his  habits, 
he  might  think,  from  the  number  of  shoes  waiting  to  be  mended, 
that  his  trade  was  rapidly  rising. 

Jim  is  generally  very  talkative,  and  likes  nothing  better  than 
to  tell  you  long  stories  of  his  past  life.  He  is  still  an  ardent 
sportsman,  and,  like  most  persons  of  that  genius,  has  a  stock  of 
stories,  which,  from  their  frequent  repetition,  border  closely 
upon  the  marvelous. 

That  Jim  is  an  earnest  Christian,  nobody,  from  his  strict 
attendance  at  church,  can  doubt.  He  was  something  of  a 
singer,  too,  in  his  day,  I  believe,  and  led  the  village  choir  for 
many  years.  Jim  has  also  entered  into  politics,  and  was  once 
constable  and  squire  of  the  township.  It  is,  however,  a  long 
time  since  he  gave  up  public  life,  though  he  still  remains,  with, 
perhaps,  the  exception  of  the  old  white-haired  parson,  the  most 
venerated  inhabitant  of  the  village. 

III.     ABSTRACT   OR    CONDENSATION. 

Method  Explained.  —  A  third  method  of  using  the 
writings  of  others  as  a  source  of  ideas  for  school  com- 
positions, may  be  found  in  taking  extracts  of  somewhat 
greater  length  than  those  in  mind  for  exercises  in  repro- 


EXERCISES  FROM  EXTRACTS.  1 89 

duction  and  substitution,  and  condensing  the  matter  of 
several  pages  into  a  single  paragraph.  This  exercise 
may  be  performed  with  the  book  open,  or  from  memory, 
and  has  the  practical  advantage  of  cultivating  the  faculty 
of  abridging  or  epitomizing  a  detailed  statement  of  facts 
or  events. 

The  student  should  select  the  important  matter  from 
the  passage  to  be  condensed,  and  should  take  care  that 
in  the  work  of  abridging  he  does  not  omit  any  matter 
necessary  for  making  the  abstract  coherent  and  intelli- 
gible. He  is  not  to  pick  out  a  sentence  here  and  another 
there ;  but  each  sentence  of  the  abstract  should  cover 
the  ground  of  several  sentences,  if  not  several  para- 
graphs, of  the  original.  A  good  recitation  in  history  is 
a  fair  example  of  a  verbal  abstract  of  the  book  studied. 
A  poor  recitation  is  often  made  by  dwelling  on  a  detail, 
and  forgetting  the  general  current  of  events. 

If  the  class  is  studying  history,  or  if  it  has  recently 
studied  history,  the  best  practice  in  writing  abstracts 
will  be  found  by  assigning  work  from  the  book  used  in 
the  history  class.  Familiar  poems,  ballads,  or  legends 
are  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

EXERCISE. 

Condense  into  three  or  four  hundred  words  the  subject  matter 
of  one  of  the  following  poems :  "The  Loss  of  the  Galleon,"  by 
Bret  Harte  ;  "  The  Ancient  Mariner,"  by  Coleridge ;  "  Count 
Robert  of  Sicily,"  by  Longfellow. 

IV.     TRANSLATION. 

Advantages  of  Written  Translation.  —  If  a  class  has 
made  sufficient  progress  in  the  study  of  any  foreign 


rOO  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

language  to  translate  extracts  from  that  language,  the 
writing  of  translations  will  be  found  one  of  the  best  exer- 
cises in  English  composition.  The  advantages  of  writing 
translations  are  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  thought 
is  furnished,  and  can  be  kept  constantly  in  view,  while  no 
English  words  are  present.  The  choice  and  arrange- 
ment of  words  are  often  treated  in  a  very  slovenly 
manner  in  oral  translations ;  and  through  such  careless- 
ness, pupils  often  neutralize  the  good  effects  of  their 
English  lessons.  Whether  speaking  or  writing,  the 
student  should  make  his  translation  thoroughly  English, 
not  only  by  using  English  words,  but  by  using  only 
English  idioms  and  constructions  ;  and  he  should  never 
follow  the  order  of  the  original  words,  or  the  foreign 
idioms,  to  the  destruction  of  a  good  English  sentence. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  extracts  for  use  in  trans- 
lation ;  for  they  must  be  taken  from  books  that  the  class 
is  familiar  with.  Any  French,  German,  or  Latin  reader 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  may  any  foreign  author 
that  the  class  has  studied. 

Advantages  of  Exercises  from  Extracts.  —  In  the  exer- 
cises given  thus  far,  we  have  paid  little  attention  to  the 
subject,  or  theme ;  for  this  in  its  full  development,  as 
well  as  the  order  of  statement,  has  been  provided  in 
the  extracts  used  as  models.  The  aim  in  the  foregoing 
exercises  has  been  to  start  the  work  of  composition  with 
the  least  possible  hindrance  from  the  lack  of  thoughts 
suitable  for  written  work.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
practice  in  writing  thus  acquired  has  done  much  to 
secure  an  easy  advance  in  the  more  difficult  work  we  are 
about  to  take  up,  in  which  the  student  must  find  the 
materials  for  his  composition  from  wider  sources  than  a 
single  extract. 


EXERCISES   FROM   EXTRACTS.  19I 

The  following  books  contain  many  passages  suitable 
for  work  in  reproduction,  substitution,  and  condensation, 
and  are  well  adapted  for  use  in  class :  — 

Irving's  "  Sketch  Book." 

Scott's  "  Lady  of  the  Lake  "  and  "  Marmion." 

Shakespeare's  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  and  Lamb's  "  Tales 

from  Shakespeare." 
Addison's  "  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers." 
Scott's  "  Ivanhoe." 
Franklin's  '^  Autobiography." 
Goldsmith's  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield." 
Thackeray's  "  Henry  Esmond," 
Cooper's  "  Spy." 
Ruskin's  "  Sesame  and  Lilies." 


CHAPTER    IV. 

DESCRIPTION   AND   NARRATION. 
I.     DESCRIPTION. 

Most  Natural  Kind  of  Composition.  —  After  practice  in 
exercises  based  on  extracts  from  the  writings  of  others, 
the  easiest  advance  for  the  pupil  is  to  describe  what 
he  has  seen  or  to  narrate  events  that  he  has  witnessed 
himself.  Here  the  material  for  the  composition  is 
either  before  the  writer's  eyes  or  in  his  memory.  But 
there  are  other  equally  good  reasons  for  placing  descrip- 
tion first  in  the  list  of  exercises  in  original  composition ; 
for  description  enters  into  every  other  form  of  writing ; 
and  the  initial  step  toward  attaining  power  with  the 
voice  or  with  the  pen  is  the  exercise  of  a  close  and  acute 
observation. 

Ample  Scope  for  Genius.  —  At  first  thought  it  may  seem 
that  one  who  has  been  traveling,  or  living  in  strange 
surroundings,  will  have  the  only  subjects  on  which  to 
write  entertaining  descriptions  or  stories.  However,  no 
form  of  writing  affords  greater  scope  for  genius  than 
does  the  description  of  ordinary  sights  or  the  recital  of 
ordinary  events.  The  charm  of  the  writings  of  Addison, 
Hawthorne,  or  Irving  lies  in  the  wonderful  power  pos- 
sessed by  them  to  paint  in  words  the  beauty  which  they 
were  able  to  discover  in  the  simple  everyday  affairs  of 
life.     It  is  said  that  Charles  Dickens  had  a  power  of 

ip2 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION.  1 93 

observation  equal  to  that  of  nine  ordinary  men.  The 
close  attention  to  details  which  he  practiced  in  the 
reporter's  gallery  of  the  House  of  Commons  reappears 
in  all  his  works  in  the  faithful  touches  of  his  pen.  The 
opening  of  the  fifth  chapter  of  "  Pickwick  "  is  especially 
noticeable  for  the  beauty  of  the  description ;  and  it  is 
well  known  now,  that  the  picture  there  given,  in  a  few 
touches  of  the  magic  pencil  of  the  great  master  of 
modern  fiction,  was  most  familiar  to  his  eye,  and  had 
painted  itself  on  his  memory  in  his  early  days,  as  he 
loitered  on  the  old  stone  bridge  of  the  city  of  Rochester, 
close  by  his  native  place. 

[from    "  PICKWICK    PAPERS."] 

On  the  left  lay  the  ruined  wall,  broken  in  many  places,  and 
in  some  overhanging  the  narrow  beach  below  in  rude  and  heavy 
masses.  Huge  knots  of  seaweed  hung  upon  the  jagged  and 
pointed  stones,  trembling  in  every  breath  of  wind  ;  and  the  green 
ivy  clung  mournfully  around  the  dark  and  ruined  battlements. 
Behind  it  rose  the  ancient  castle,  its  towers  roofless,  and  its 
massive  walls  crumbling  away,  but  telling  us  proudly  of  its  old 
might  and  strength,  as  when,  seven  hundred  years  ago,  it  rang 
with  a  clash  of  arms  or  resounded  with  the  noise  of  feasting 
and  revelry.  On  either  side,  the  banks  of  the  Medway,  covered 
with  cornfields  and  pastures,  with  here  and  there  a  windmill  or 
a  distant  church,  stretched  away  as  far  as  the  eye  could  see, 
presenting  a  rich  and  varied  landscape,  rendered  more  beauti- 
ful by  the  changing  shadows  which  passed  swifdy  across  it,  as 
the  thin  and  half-formed  clouds  skimmed  away  in  the  light  of 
the  morning  sun.  The  river,  reflecting  the  clear  blue  of  the 
sky,  glistened  and  sparkled  as  it  flowed  noiselessly  on;  and 
the  oars  of  the  fishermen  dipped  into  the  water  with  a  clear  and 
liquid  sound,  as  their  heavy  but  picturesque  boats  glided  down 
the  stream. 

scH.  BNG. — 13 


194  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  It  is  this  quick  sense  and 
power  of  observation  to  which  we  owe  many  of  the 
masterpieces  of  our  literature. 

The  following  advice  to  students  of  English  composi- 
tion was  given  by  one  well  qualified  to  speak  on  the 
subject : — 

"  It  is  not  given  to  every  one  to  transmute,  by  magic  touches, 
the  dust  of  the  highway  into  gold  and  gems.  True  enough, 
and  yet  the  magic  touch  must  be  tried  before  its  possessor  is 
aware  that  he  has  it ;  and  I  would  place  next  in  order  to  a  close 
and  acute  observation,  as  an  essential  aid  in  the  formation  of  a 
good  style,  the  practice  of  descriptive  writing.  To  any  one  who 
would  improve  in  the  art  of  English  composition  I  would  say, 
describe  as  faithfully  as  you  can  some  scene  or  incident  of 
which  you  are  a  part.  Seat  yourself  on  a  summer  day  under 
a  native  pine,  on  some  height  commanding  a  varied  landscape  ; 
and  with  pencil  and  notebook  in  hand,  try  to  reproduce  in 
words  the  picture  which  nature  spreads  before  you.  Begin  by 
describing  the  pine  which  shelters  you.  You  look  up  into  its 
dark,  dense  mass  of  green  with  a  new  scrutiny.  You  are  to 
sketch  its  portrait.  In  its  stern,  grim  aspect  it  seems  to  say  to 
you  as  Cromwell  said  to  Sir  Peter  Lely,  *  Paint  me  as  I  am.* 
Your  eye  fastens  upon  it  with  a  strange  sense  of  wonder.  You 
measure  with  your  glance  the  height  of  the  giant  trunk ;  you 
trace  the  dark,  rough  outlines  of  the  huge  outspreading  branches  ; 
and  as  you  seek  for  the  secret  of  its  unUkeness  to  all  other 
growths  of  the  forest,  you  discover  as  if  for  the  first  time  that 
it  is  a  leafless  tree,  thick  set  at  every  point,  with  bristling  needles 
of  polished  green,  tipped  perhaps  with  dewdrops  or  raindrops 
like  diamond  points,  and  throwing  back  the  sunbeams  as  from 
an  emerald  wall.  This  tree,  if  you  study  it,  is  a  revelation,  and 
perhaps  when  you  have  written  down  its  true  description,  and 
from  it,  as  a  central  point,  have  traced  all  the  familiar  but  ever- 
varying  objects  which  make  up  the  landscape,  a  new  power 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION.  195 

will  be  revealed  to  yourself  of  using,  in  the  description  of  natu- 
ral objects,  the  words  you  have  often  striven  in  vain  to  com- 
bine for  the  expression  of  thought  or  feeling. 

"  It  seems  to  me  that  the  first  essays  in  original  composition 
should  be  in  descriptive  writing.  For  beginners,  the  eye  and 
no  other  faculty,  unless  an  alarming  precociousness  has  set  in, 
must  instruct  the  pen.  If  there  is  any  value  in  the  object 
system  on  which  our  kindergarten  schools  are  founded,  it  is 
surely  most  available  here.  At  first  the  results  may  be  rude 
enough.  A  boy  of  five  or  six  years  old  is  set  to  write  a  compo- 
sition on  a  horse.  Here  is  what  comes  of  it :  'A  horse  is 
bigger  than  a  dog.  He  has  four  legs,  one  at  each  corner.' 
But  this  is  very  well  as  far  as  it  goes ;  and  it  is  better  to  perse- 
vere in  this  direction,  training  the  mind  to  draw  from  nature, 
than  to  bound  the  mental  horizon  by  histories,  encyclopedias, 
and  story  books." 

Before  undertaking  any  work  in  description,  it  will  be 
a  great  aid  to  you  to  read  as  much  as  you  can  find  time 
to  read  from  the  works  of  authors  noted  for  their  powers 
in  this  direction.  No  time  will  be  spent  to  greater 
advantage  than  by  reading  Irving's  '*  Sketch  Book " 
or  "  Bracebridge  Hall."  Passages  which  contain  the 
brightest  and  strongest  descriptions  should  be  care- 
fully studied,  not  with  the  idea  in  view  of  imitating  any 
single  passage,  as  in  the  exercises  in  substitution,  but, 
if  possible,  with  the  teacher's  aid  to  find  general  sugges- 
tions for  all  writing  of  this  kind.  Take,  for  example, 
the  following  extract  from  Irving's  "  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow : "  — 

Old  Baltus  Van  Tassel  was  a  perfect  picture  of  a  thriving, 
contented,  liberal-hearted  farmer.  He  seldom,  it  is  true,  sent 
either  his  eyes  or  his  thoughts  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his 
own  farm ;  but  within  these  everything  was  snug,  happy,  and 


196  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

well-conditioned.  He  was  satisfied  with  his  wealth,  but  not 
proud  of  it,  and  piqued  himself  upon  the  hearty  abundance 
rather  than  the  style  in  which  he  lived.  His  stronghold  was 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  in  one  of  those  green, 
sheltered,  fertile  nooks  in  which  the  Dutch  farmers  are  so  fond 
of  nestling.  A  great  elm-tree  spread  its  broad  branches  over 
it,  at  the  foot  of  which  bubbled  up  a  spring  of  the  softest  and 
sweetest  water  in  a  little  well  formed  of  a  barrel,  and  then 
stole  sparkling  away  through  the  grass  to  a  neighboring  brook 
that  bubbled  along  among  alders  and  dwarf  willows.  Hard  by 
the  farmhouse  was  a  vast  barn  that  might  have  served  for  a 
church,  every  window  and  crevice  of  which  seemed  bursting 
forth  with  the  treasures  of  the  farm.  The  flail  was  busily  re- 
sounding within  it  from  morning  till  night;  swallows  and 
martins  skimmed  twittering  about  the  eaves  ;  and  rows  of 
pigeons  —  some  with  one  eye  turned  up,  as  if  watching  the 
weather ;  some  with  their  heads  under  their  wings  or  buried 
in  their  bosoms ;  and  others  swelling,  and  cooing,  and  bowing 
about  their  dames  —  were  enjoying  the  sunshine  on  the  roof. 
Sleek,  unwieldy  porkers  were  grunting  in  the  repose  and  abun- 
dance of  their  pens ;  from  whence  sallied  forth,  now  and  then, 
troops  of  sucking  pigs,  as  if  to  snuff  the  air.  A  stately  squad- 
ron of  snowy  geese  were  riding  in  an  adjoining  pond,  convoying 
whole  fleets  of  ducks.  Regiments  of  turkeys  were  gobbhng 
through  the  farmyard,  and  guinea  fowls  fretting  about  it  like 
ill-tempered  housewives,  with  their  peevish,  discontented  cry. 
Before  the  barn  door  strutted  the  gallant  cock,  that  pattern  of 
a  husband,  a  warrior,  and  a  fine  gentleman,  clapping  his  bur- 
nished wings  and  crowing  in  the  pride  and  gladness  of  his 
heart,  sometimes  tearing  up  the  earth  with  his  feet,  and  then 
generously  calling  his  ever-hungry  family  of  wives  and  children 
to  enjoy  the  rich  morsel  which  he  had  discovered. 

The  pedagogue's  mouth  watered  as  he  looked  upon  this 
sumptuous  promise  of  luxurious  winter  fare.  In  his  devouring 
mind's  eye  he  pictured  to  himself  every  roasting  pig  running 

> 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION.  1 97 

about  "  with  a  pudding  in  its  belly  "  and  an  apple  In  its  mouth  ; 
the  pigeons  were  snugly  put  to  bed  in  a  comfortable  pie,  and 
tucked  in  with  a  coverlet  of  crust ;  the  geese  were  swimming 
in  their  own  gravy;  and  the  ducks  pairing  cozily  in  dishes, 
hke  snug  married  couples,  with  a  decent  competency  of  onion- 
sauce.  In  the  porkers  he  saw  carved  out  the  future  sleek  side 
of  bacon,  and  juicy,  relishing  ham ;  not  a  turkey  but  he  beheld 
daintily  trussed  up,  with  its  gizzard  under  its  wing,  and,  per- 
adventure,  a  necklace  of  savory  sausages ;  and  even  bright 
chanticleer  himself  lay  sprawling  on  his  back,  in  a  side-dish, 
with  uphfted  claws,  as  if  craving  that  quarter  which  his  chival- 
rous spirit  disdained  to  ask  while  Hving. 

Points  to  be  noticed.  —  In  studying  this  passage  and 
others  of  like  merit,  the  following  points  are  especially 
noticeable  :  — 

I.  The  language  used  is  simple y  as  if  the  author  were 
talking  rather  than  writing. 

Use  the  ordinary  words  of  conversation  when  describ- 
ing simple  scenes.  If  describing  Westminster  Abbey 
or  the  Pyramids,  the  grandeur  of  the  scene  may  require 
the  use  of  loftier  words,  but  not  any  more  so  than  if 
the  writer  were  speaking  earnestly  on  the  same  theme. 
The  moment  a  writer  employs  words  that  he  would  not 
use  in  conversation,  there  is  danger  that  his  writings 
will  become  empty,  and  lack  the  attractiveness  which 
comes  from  naturalness  and  sincerity. 

II.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  a  complete  description  or 
to  go  with  equal  detail  into  every  feature  of  the  scene. 

The  general  description  or  outline  of  the  scene  may  be 
suggested  by  a  very  brief  sentence,  or  even  by  a  passing 


198  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

phrase ;  and  the  writer  may  start  at  once  upon  the 
detail  of  that  feature  which  has  impressed  him  as  the 
most  prominent  or  attractive  ;  and  he  may  dwell  on  that 
so  long  as  he  feels  he  can  hold  the  reader's  interest. 
In  the  foregoing  extract,  the  animals  of  the  farmyard 
are  the  attractive  feature,  and  everything  else  is  second- 
ary to  them. 

Many  school  pupils,  in  writing  a  description  of  a  barn- 
yard with  which  they  are  familiar,  would  feel  bound  to 
give  its  size,  shape,  the  kind  of  fence  about  it,  to  tell 
which  side  of  the  barn  it  was  on,  and  to  mention  every 
gate  to  it,  or  building  in  it,  with  equal  accuracy  of 
description. 

in.  Description  is  not  necessarily  an  instantaneous 
vieWy  but  may  be  enlivened  by  action. 

In  the  scene  above  described  the  birds  are  flying,  the 
geese  are  swimming,  and  chanticleer  is  clapping  his 
wings  and  crowing  in  pride.  Of  course,  this  is  only 
giving  a  true  picture  of  the  scene.  Young  writers  often 
make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  a  description  must 
consist  only  of  measurements,  location,  size,  color,  and 
other  enumeration  of  points.  A  description  may  be 
better  accomplished  by  telling  what  is  going  on  than  by 
painting  objects  as  they  stand. 

In  the  following  extract  from  "  Romola  "  but  a  single 
word,  breads  is  devoted  to  the  size  of  the  market ;  none 
to  the  shape ;  and  the  briefest  description  of  a  statue 
and  fountain  is  the  only  attempt  at  describing  any  of 
the  architecture  or  buildings  ;  yet  in  these  pages  George 
Eliot  has  painted  a  true  picture  of  the  old  market  at 
Florence. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION.  1 99 

[from   GEORGE   ELIOT'S   "  ROMOLA."] 

They  had  now  emerged  from  the  narrow  streets  into  a  broad 
piazza,  known  to  the  elder  Florentine  writers  as  the  Mercato 
Vecchio,  or  the  Old  Market.  This  piazza,  though  it  had  been 
the  scene  of  a  provision  market  from  time  immemorial,  and  may, 
perhaps,  says  fond  imagination,  be  the  very  spot  to  which  the 
Fesulean  ancestors  of  the  Florentines  descended  from  their 
high  fastness  to  traffic  with  the  rustic  population  of  the  valley, 
had  not  been  shunned  as  a  place  of  residence  by  Florentine 
wealth.  In  the  early  decades  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which 
was  now  near  its  end,  the  Medici  and  other  powerful  families 
oi  ih^  popolani  grassi,  or  commercial  nobility,  had  their  houses 
there,  not  perhaps  finding  their  ears  much  offended  by  the 
loud  roar  of  mingled  dialects,  or  their  eyes  much  shocked  by 
the  butchers'  stalls,  which  the  old  poet  Antonio  Pucci  accounts 
a  chief  glory,  or  dignita,  of  a  market  that,  in  his  esteem,  eclipsed 
the  markets  of  all  the  earth  beside.  But  the  glory  of  mutton 
and  veal  (well  attested  to  be  the  flesh  of  the  right  animals  ; 
for  were  not  the  skins,  with  the  heads  attached,  duly  displayed, 
according  to  the  decree  of  the  Signoria?)  was  just  now  wanting 
to  the  Mercato,  the  time  of  Lent  not  being  yet  over.  The 
proud  corporation,  or  "■  Art,"  of  butchers  was  in  abeyance,  and 
it  was  the  great  harvest  time  of  the  market  gardeners,  the 
cheesemongers,  the  venders  of  macaroni,  corn,  eggs,  milk,  and 
dried  fruits  :  a  change  which  was  apt  to  make  the  women's 
voices  predominant  in  the  chorus.  But  in  all  seasons  there 
was  the  experimental  ringing  of  pots  and  pans,  the  chink- 
ing of  the  money  changers,  the  tempting  offers  of  cheapness  at 
the  old-clothes  stalls,  the  challengers  of  the  dicers,  the  vaunting 
of  new  linens  and  woolens,  of  excellent  wooden  ware,  kettles, 
and  frying  pans  ;  there  was  the  choking  of  the  narrow  inlets 
with  mules  and  carts,  together  with  much  uncomplimentary 
remonstrance  in  terms  remarkably  identical  with  the  insults 
in  use  by  the  gentler  sex  of  the  present  day,  under  the  same 


200  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

imbrowning  and  heating  circumstances.  Ladies  and  gentle- 
men who  came  to  market  looked  on  at  a  larger  amount  of 
amateur  fighting  than  could  easily  be  seen  in  these  later  times, 
and  beheld  more  revolting  rags,  beggary,  and  rascaldom  than 
modern  householders  could  well  picture  to  themselves.  As  the 
day  wore  on,  the  hideous  drama  of  the  gaming  house  might  be 
seen  here  by  any  chance  open-air  spectator  —  the  quivering 
eagerness,  the  blank  despair,  the  sobs,  the  blasphemy,  and  the 
blows  :  —  but  still  there  was  the  relief  of  prettier  sights  :  there 
were  brood  rabbits,  not  less  innocent  and  astonished  than  those 
of  our  own  period ;  there  were  doves  and  singing  birds  to  be 
bought  as  presents  for  the  children ;  there  were  even  kittens 
for  sale,  and  here  and  there  a  handsome  gattuccio,  or  "Tom," 
with  the  highest  character  for  mousing;  and,  better  than  all, 
there  were  young,  softly  rounded  cheeks  and  bright  eyes, 
freshened  by  the  start  from  the  far-off  castello  at  daybreak, 
not  to  speak  of  older  faces  with  unfading  charm  of  honest  good- 
will in  them,  such  as  are  never  quite  wanting  in  scenes  of  human 
industry.  And  high  on  a  pillar  in  the  center  of  the  place  —  a 
venerable  pillar,  fetched  from  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  — 
stood  Donatello's  stone  statue  of  Plenty,  with  a  fountain 
near  it,  where,  says  old  Pucci,  the  good  wives  of  the  market 
freshened  their  utensils,  and  their  throats  also ;  not  because 
they  were  unable  to  buy  wine,  but  because  they  wished  to  save 
the  money  for  their  husbands. 

But  on  this  particular  morning  a  sudden  change  seemed  to 
have  come  over  the  face  of  the  market.  The  deschi,  or  stalls, 
were  indeed  partly  dressed  with  their  various  commodities, 
and  already  there  were  purchasers  assembled,  on  the  alert  to 
secure  the  finest,  freshest  vegetables  and  the  most  unexception- 
able butter.  But  when  Bratti  and  his  companion  entered  the 
piazza,  it  appeared  that  some  common  preoccupation  had  for 
the  moment  distracted  the  attention  both  of  buyers  and  sellers 
from  their  proper  business.  Most  of  the  traders  had  turned 
their  backs  on  their  goods,  and  had  joined  the  knots  of  talkers 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION.  201 

who  were  concentrating  themselves  at  different  points  in  the 
piazza.  A  vender  of  old  clothes,  in  the  act  of  hanging  out 
a  pair  of  long  hose,  had  distractedly  hung  them  round  his 
neck  in  his  eagerness  to  join  the  nearest  group ;  an  oratorical 
cheesemonger,  with  a  piece  of  cheese  in  one  hand  and  a  knife 
in  the  other,  was  incautiously  making  notes  of  his  emphatic 
pauses  on  that  excellent  specimen  of  marzolino ;  and  elderly 
rnarket  women,  with  their  egg  baskets  in  a  dangerously  oblique 
position,  contributed  a  wailing  fugue  of  invocation. 

II.     NARRATION. 

Narration  and  Description.  —  Relating  in  writing 
events  of  which  the  writer  has  been  a  witness,  or  with 
whose  history  he  has  become  familiar,  is  almost  as 
natural  an  exercise  in  composition  as  is  the  description 
of  objects  before  the  writer's  eyes.  Of  course,  every 
story  must  contain  some  description,  or  it  will  lack 
interest;  and  in  narrating  events  as  well  as  in  the 
description  of  scenes,  careful  observation  is  all-important. 
It  is  this  faculty  which  makes  the  stories  of  Defoe  so 
marvelously  lifelike,  that  in  reading  them,  we  can  hardly 
convince  ourselves  that  they  are  not  as  real  as  our  own 
lives.  Remember,  then,  that  interest  in  a  story  will  be 
increased  by  good  description  of  characters  and  of  the 
scenes  where  the  actions  take  place.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  most  famous  descriptions  occur  in  the  course  of  a 
story  or  history. 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  limit  one's  self  to  the 
realm  of  truth  in  these  exercises.  Our  imaginations  play 
most  easily  in  constructing  imaginary  actions  in  which 
we  are  supposed  to  take  part,  or  which  we  are  supposed 
to  witness.  It  may  even  be  easier  to  make  up  a  story 
than  to  relate  one  that  is  true. 


202  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  In  all  forms  of  narration,  as 
far  as  possible,  relate  events  in  the  order  of  occurrence. 
Remember,  however,  that  every  story,  true  or  fictitious, 
long  or  short,  if  worth  telling  at  all,  should  have  in  it  one 
fact  of  special  interest ;  and  that  simply  enumerating  a 
series  of  events,  without  regard  to  their  relation  to  each 
other,  and  without  leading  up  to  one  of  special  interest, 
is  telling  a  story  without  a  point.  Be  sure,  then,  in 
writing  any  narrative,  to  keep  in  mind  the  point  which 
you  wish  to  bring  out ;  and  let  everything  be  said  with 
a  view  to  making  your  point  clear.  When  the  chief 
fact  has  been  stated,  the  story  should  be  quickly  brought 
to  a  close,  for  the  reader  will  no  longer  be  interested. 
In  a  novel  with  a  happy  ending,  the  culminating  point 
of  interest  is  that  chapter  in  which  the  hero  or  heroine 
overcomes  all  the  obstacles,  in  which  misunderstandings 
are  cleared  up,  and  obstructing  agents  disposed  of.  In 
a  tragedy,  the  events  related  all  lead  to  misfortune  or 
death.  A  well-written  novel  may  contain  many  pages 
which  one  will  not  tire  of  reading  over  and  over 
again ;  but  the  events  narrated  generally  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  plot ;  and  when  the  plot  is  unraveled, 
the  rest  of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  disposing  of  the 
characters. 

No  matter  how  short  a  story  one  writes,  he  should 
have  some  point  in  view,  or  he  will  fail  to  please  him- 
self or  others.  An  account  of  the  last  vacation  is 
frequently  assigned  for  a  subject  in  narration.  The 
writer  who  simply  enumerates  one  event  after  another 
will  fail  to  make  a  good  composition,  but  the  writer 
who  is  impressed  with  one  interesting  incident  or  phase 
of  his  vacation,  will,  if  he  writes  so  as  to  bring  this  out, 
be  more  entertaining  than  if  he  had  no  point  in  mind. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ESSAYS. 

Definition.  —  An  essay  or  exposition  is  a  short  written 
composition  explai7iing  any  subject. 

Subject  must  be  thoroughly  understood.  —  In  all  the 
forms  of  composition  studied  thus  far,  the  thoughts  for 
writing  have  been  found  either  in  an  extract  from  the 
writings  of  another,  or,  as  in  description  or  narration, 
the  subject-matter  has  been  furnished  by  the  eye,  the 
memory,  or  the  imagination.  From  the  definition  given 
above,  it  is  evident  that  information  of  a  wider  nature  is 
absolutely  necessary  before  any  progress  can  be  made 
in  the  work  of  writing  an  essay.  It  is  the  effort  to 
explain  a  subject  before  it  is  understood,  or  to  give 
information  before  one  has  any  to  give,  that  discourages 
and  distracts  the  person  who  sits  down  with  pen  in 
hand  to  write  on  a  subject  of  w^hich  he  knows  nothing 
except  that  an  essay  upon  it  is  due  from  him. 

Understand,  then,  at  the  outset,  that  unless  you  have 
studied,  or  read,  or  at  least  reflected  upon  the  subject, 
you  cannot  possibly  write  an  essay  on  it.  Therefore,  if 
called  upon  to  write  an  original  composition  without 
previous  opportunity  for  preparation,  choose  for  your 
work  the  description  of  what  you  have  seen,  a  story 
that  you  know,  or  one  that  you  can  make  up.  The 
essay  needs  work  of  preparation  before  it  can  be  written  ; 
and  if  this  work  cannot  be  given,  do  not  attempt  to 
write  one. 

203 


204  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Pleasure  in  Work.  —  There  are  undoubtedly  many 
pupils  who  think  there  is  no  enjoyment  to  be  found 
in  school,  because  it  is  a  place  to  work ;  and  they  are 
unwilling  to  believe  that  pleasure  can  be  found  aside 
from  play.  This  belief  will  be  the  cause  of  much 
unhappiness  for  them  and  for  all  who  fail  to  appreciate 
that  one  of  the  greatest  pleasures  in  life  is  to  be  found 
in  the  successful  accomplishment  of  a  hard  task.  The 
scholar  who  takes  any  enjoyment  in  his  work  will  find, 
if  he  reflects,  that  his  keenest  delight  comes  from  the 
consciousness  that  he  has  learned  something.  If 
properly  managed,  essay  work  can  be  made  the  best 
means  of  proving  to  ourselves  that  we  have  made  some 
progress  in  our  work.  The  pages  which  contain  the 
expression  of  one's  own  knowledge  on  a  subject  that 
he  has  been  studying,  will  be  to  the  writer,  if  to  no  one 
else,  a  reality  of  no  small  significance.  If,  however, 
one  attempts  to  write  on  subjects  in  which  he  is  not 
interested  or  on  which  he  has  no  real  knowledge,  the 
essay  will  be  only  a  sham,  incapable  of  affording  satis- 
faction to  any  one. 


CHOOSING   A   SUBJECT. 

Unnatural  Methods.  —  How  often  may  a  boy  be  found 
turning  over  the  pages  of  the  encyclopedia  or  reading 
a  column  of  subjects  in  a  text-book  on  rhetoric,  in  the 
hope  of  finding  something  to  write  on,  willing  to  take 
anything,  from  ''A  Sheet  of  Paper"  to  "The  Ambition 
of  Napoleon,"  if  only  he  can  be  convinced  of  his  ability 
to  fill  out  two  pages  of  foolscap.  Choosing  subjects  by 
these  unnatural  methods  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  essay  writing. 


ESSAYS.  205 

School  Essays  and  Literature.  —  The  schoolboy  or 
schoolgirl  who  finds  difficulty  in  choosing  a  subject,  or 
in  writing  on  one  arbitrarily  assigned,  may  gain  some 
comfort  from  the  fact  that  no  sensible  man  or  woman 
would  ever  think  of  acting  on  this  principle.  Those 
who  have  interested  the  world  have  written  books  because 
they  could  not  help  writing  them ;  and  though  it  may 
be  unfair  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  career  of  genius, 
when  our  aim  is  the  instruction  of  the  average  boy  and 
girl,  yet  we  may  say  of  all  good  books  that  the  authors 
wrote  them  because  they  had  some  subject  so  much  in 
their  thoughts  and  in  their  hearts,  that,  if  they  were  to 
write  at  all,  they  must  write  on  that  subject.  They 
do  not  first  determine  to  write  and  then  acquire  ideas 
on  some  new  topic  of  thought,  for  the  sake  of  putting 
them  in  writing. 

Of  course,  school  compositions  must  generally  be 
written  at  the  demand  of  some  authority,  or  not  written 
at  all ;  and  viewing  them  in  the  same  light  as  real  litera- 
ture would  be  to  do  away  with  them  entirely.  Never- 
theless, it  is  well  to  make  school  exercises  as  real  as 
possible;  and  with  this  end  in  view,  it  is  important  that 
essay  subjects  should  be  chosen  or  assigned  by  the  most 
natural  method  possible. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  The  first  question  in  your 
mind  should  not  be.  What  can  I  write  about  ?  but  What 
do  I  think  about  f  What  do  I  talk  about  f  or  What  am  I 
most  interested  in  ?  It  must  be  a  very  vacant-minded 
lad  who  cannot  tell  what  he  talks  about  most  frequently, 
or  who  cannot  name  the  subject  which  is  most  promi- 
nent in  his  thoughts.  If  the  only  thought  you  can  name 
is  how  you  hate  school,  develop  that  on  paper ;  and  by 
so  doing,  you  may  find  a  better  heart  and  learn  the  error 


206  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

of  your  way.     If  you  only  think  of  baseball,  write  on 
that  in  the  best  way  you  can. 

But  the  state  of  the  schoolboy's  brain  is  better  than 
many  believe ;  and  his  thoughts  are  regulated  more  by 
the  work  he  is  doing  and  the  books  he  is  reading  than 
by  any  other  influence.  Give  a  boy  an  exciting  book, 
and  he  will  be  apt  to  neglect  his  work  for  it,  and  pos- 
sibly his  play.  Put  a  good  novel  in  his  hands,  and  his 
thoughts,  and  even  his  dreams,  will  be  largely  upon  the 
subject  of  that  book.  Therefore,  if  you  wish  to  write 
on  a  literary  subject,  instead  of  hunting  for  subjects,  or 
taking  one  arbitrarily  assigned,  select  a  good  book,  or 
study  carefully  any  book  that  you  are  reading  in  class. 
Listen  carefully  to  the  discussions  which  come  up  in 
the  classroom.  Notice  every  question  asked  there  that 
you  would  like  to  answer  yourself  or  to  know  the  answer 
of.  Carry  the  discussions  of  the  classroom  to  your 
home,  make  them  topics  of  conversation  there  and 
elsewhere,  and  very  soon  you  will  have  an  essay  sub- 
ject on  which  you  can  write  with  interest  and  pleasure. 

GATHERING    INFORMATION. 

Subjects  Classified.  —  Essay  subjects  on  which  school 
pupils  may  profitably  spend  their  time  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes. 

I.    Those   taken  from  the  occupations  or   entertain- 
ments of  boys  or  girls. 
II.    Those  taken  from  topics  of  current  interest. 
III.    Literary  subjects,  or  those  taken  from  books. 

After  the  subject  has  been  chosen,  the  next  step  is  to 
gather  sufficient  information  for  intelligently  explaining 


ESSAYS.  207 

Jt  in  a  written  composition.  The  method  of  gath- 
ering information  will  vary  as  the  subject  is  taken 
from  one  or  another  of  the  three  classes  mentioned 
above. 

Practical  Suggestions.  —  I.  If  the  subject  is  taken  from 
school  life,  or  your  own  occupations  out  of  school, 
especially  if  it  is,  as  it  should  be,  something  in  which 
you  are  particularly  interested,  you  will  probably  have 
many  ideas  of  your  own;  and  you  may  feel  ready  to 
start  the  work  of  writing  at  once.  It  will  always  be 
wise,  however,  to  talk  the  matter  over  with  some  friend 
also  interested  in  it,  and  thus  add  his  to  your  own  stock 
of  information.  If  you  have  arrived  at  any  opinions  on 
debatable  matters,  give  your  friend  your  opinions  and 
the  reasons  for  having  adopted  them.  His  arguments 
for  or  against  your  conclusions  will  probably  be  sug- 
gestive of  new  thoughts.  If  any  good  books  or  articles 
can  be  found  bearing  directly  on  the  subject,  it  will  be 
well  to  read  them,  unless  you  feel  that  you  have  plenty 
to  say  without  doing  so. 

II.  If  your  essay  is  to  be  on  some  current  topic  of  gen- 
eral interest,  your  fitness  to  write  will  depend  on  whether 
you  have  gained  interest  in  your  subject  by  listening  to 
intelligent  conversations,  or  by  reading  the  articles  on 
that  subject  in  the  newspapers  and  magazines.  If  you 
have  not  become  interested  in  this  way,  your  theme  has 
been  ill  chosen ;  and  you  ought  to  take  another.  If, 
however,  the  subject  is  well  chosen,  you  should  make 
notes  of  all  the  information  you  have  picked  up  from 
conversations ;  and  if  possible,  review  the  best  articles 
you  have  read  on  your  subject.  Find  as  many  articles 
as  you  can,  and  keep  them  for  reference.  Remember 
you  are  after  information.     Do  not  stop  seeking  it  until 


208  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

you  feel  that  you  have  sufficient  to  explain  your  subject 
to  an  intelligent  reader.  The  encyclopedia  may  be 
consulted  for  matters  in  the  history  of  the  theme 
being  discussed  ;  but  no  mistake  is  more  childish  than 
to  suppose  that  an  essay  on  a  topic  of  current  interest 
can  be  written  from  an  encyclopedia  article. 

III.  A  subject  may  be  taken  from  a  book,  whenever 
in  reading  a  book  special  interest  has  been  awakened 
on  that  subject.  The  book  should  be  reread,  and  all 
passages  containing  useful  thoughts  should  be  noted. 
If  other  books  can  be  obtained  that  will  add  information 
on  the  subject,  they  should  also  be  consulted.  It  is 
especially  necessary  to  have  several  books  for  reference 
in  writing  on  a  subject  from  history.  It  is  difficult  to 
overestimate  the  amount  of  time  that  can  be  profitably 
spent  in  reading,  if  one  is  going  to  write  an  essay  on  a 
character  or  topic  in  history.  Of  course,  your  time  is 
limited,  but  remember  that  most  of  the  time  allowed  for 
the  essay  should  be  spent  in  reading  and  making  notes. 
If  you  are  going  to  write  an  essay  on  Alexander  the 
Great,  you  should  know  the  life  of  Alexander  well 
enough  to  pass  an  examination  upon  it,  and  to  have  a 
few  thoughts  of  your  own  worth  telling  to  others. 

THE    OUTLINE. 

Necessity  for  an  Outline. — When  the  subject  has 
been  chosen,  and  by  reading  and  conversation  the  mind 
and  notebook  are  full  of  information,  though  the  writer 
may  have  determined  on  the  order  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  his  thoughts,  difficulty  may  be  found  in  following 
this  order  in  writing.  This  difficulty  can  be  overcome 
by  making  a  written  outline  or  skeleton  of  the  essay, 


ESSAYS.  209 

showing  the  topics  to  be  covered  and  the  order  in  which 
they  should  be  taken  up. 

There  is  nothing  unnatural  or  artificial  in  the  con- 
struction of  an  outline.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  boy  has 
received  an  invitation  which  he  is  very  anxious  to 
accept,  and  that  his  father  has  said  to  him,  **  I  hardly 
think  I  can  allow  you  to  go ;  but  come  to  me  in  half 
an  hour,  and  we  will  talk  it  over."  Now,  if  that  boy 
has  ordinary  intelligence,  he  will  spend  the  half  hour 
in  thinking  up  all  possible  objections  his  father  might 
have,  and  in  finding  an  answer  to  each  one.  He  will 
decide  what  he  will  say  first,  what  he  will  say  next,  and 
what  argument  he  will  reserve  to  the  end.  The  boy 
will,  in  other  words,  make  an  outline.  He  may  trust 
to  his  memory  to  recall  the  order  he  has  arranged ; 
but  if  he  should  make  a  note  of  the  outline  in  writing, 
he  would  be  more  certain  to  cover  every  point,  and 
better  able  to  concentrate  his  attention  on  each  point 
as  he  takes  it  up.  Lawyers  speak  from  briefs ;  and 
the  most  eloquent  ministers  generally  have  an  outline 
or  a  few  notes  which  enable  them  to  deliver  their 
sermons  without  reading  them  or  committing  them  to 
memory. 

Avoid  Artificial  Methods.  —  Mistakes  are  often  made 
by  teaching  scholars  artificial  methods  of  making  out- 
lines. It  is  not  necessary  to  ask  yourselves  such  ques- 
tions as  When  ?  Where  ?  How  ?  Who  ?  and  others 
equally  mechanical.  But  simply  sort  out  your  knowl- 
edge under  stick  heads  as  suggest  themselves  most  natu- 
rally y  and  arrange  these  in  the  best  order. 

The  publisher  of  one  of  the  most  popular  magazines 
recently  said  that  the  beginning  and  ending  of  most 
articles  from  new  contributors  could  be  cut  off  without 

SCH.  ENG.  —  14 


2IO  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

harm  to  the  articles.  Do  not  feel  it  necessary  to  begin 
with  remarks  more  or  less  irrelevant  to  the  subject  for 
the  sake  of  having  an  introduction ;  and  after  you  are 
through,  do  not  think  you  must  add  a  conclusion.  Begin 
your  subject  without  any  apology  or  explanation;  and 
let  the  first  item  of  your  outline  be  a  part  of  the  infor- 
mation you  wish  to  convey ;  and  when  you  have  cov- 
ered every  point,  nothing  more  is  necessary. 

WRITING   THE   ESSAY. 

Make  Use  of  the  Outline.  —  When  the  outline  is  fin- 
ished, you  are  ready  to  write.  But  the  work  is  two 
thirds  over  when  you  have  reached  this  point.  Develop 
each  item  of  the  outline  as  fully  as  you  can.  When 
you  have  developed  all  the  items,  look  carefully  over  your 
work  with  a  view,  if  possible,  to  improving  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  matter  and  weaving  together  what  has 
been  written  on  the  different  points.  Criticise  the  lan- 
guage you  have  used.  Correct  every  error  you  have 
made  in  grammar  or  in  the  choice  of  words,  and  every 
sentence  that  lacks  clearness.  Make  such  changes  as 
you  see  will  improve  the  force  and  harmony  of  your 
work.     Finally  copy  the  essay  as  corrected. 

Write  carefully  from  the  Start.  —  Do  not  write  care- 
lessly at  first,  because  you  intend  to  copy  the  first 
draught.  Write  always  as  carefully  as  you  can.  Capi- 
talize and  punctuate  as  you  go  along.  As  was  said  in 
the  chapter  on  letter  writing,  carefulness  will  not  pre- 
vent naturalness  in  writing.  Never  allow  a  mistake  to 
go  uncorrected.  If  after  the  work  is  copied,  you  dis- 
cover too  many  errors  to  correct  without  spoiling  the 
appearance  of  a  page,  copy  that  page  again. 


ESSAYS.  211 

For  original  work,  as  has  been  already  shown,  one 
will  draw  his  ideas  very  largely  from  books,  and  the 
question  will  arise.  How  far  is  it  proper  to  take  the 
thoughts  or  words  of  others  ?  Of  course,  it  is  never 
right  to  copy  the  exact  words  of  others  without  inclos- 
ing the  passage  taken  in  quotation  marks ;  nor  should 
you  deliberately  take  the  ideas  of  another  and  advance 
them  as  your  own.  Unless  quoting,  it  is  best  not  to 
write  with  your  authorities  open  before  you,  except 
when  referring  to  dates  and  similar  matter  of  record,  or 
when  designedly  introducing  a  condensed  statement  of 
another's  work.  When,  however,  by  reading  or  study 
you  have  worked  into  your  own  mind  the  knowledge  or 
opinions  of  others,  so  that  you  are  able  to  reflect  intel- 
ligently on  this  knowledge,  you  need  have  no  hesitation 
in  writing  down  whatever  you  think  on  any  subject, 
even  though  your  thoughts  be  similar  to  those  you  have 
read.    , 


CHAPTER   VI. 

DEBATE. 

Natural  Tendency  to  Debate.  —  The  object  of  much 
of  our  writing  and  talking  is  to  convince  others  of  an 
opinion,  or  to  persuade  them  to  a  certain  course  of 
action.  If  we  enter  a  room  and  find  an  animated  con- 
versation in  progress,  we  may  be  quite  sure  that  some 
sort  of  argument  is  going  on.  This  is  apt  to  be  the 
case,  even  if  the  persons  engaged  in  the  conversation 
are  very  young  children,  whose  arguments  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  their  respective  parents,  brothers,  or 
games,  are  as  serious  to  themselves  as  they  are  enter- 
taining to  the  listener. 

Letters  and  most  other  forms  of  composition  are  apt 
to  be  argumentative  in  their  nature.  Lawyers,  preach- 
ers, and  public  speakers  of  all  sorts,  deal  chiefly  with 
some  form  of  persuasion.  When  a  number  of  school 
or  college  students  come  together  voluntarily  for  the 
object  of  literary  improvement,  their  exercises  generally 
take  the  form  of  debate. 

When,  therefore,  we  urge  the  student  to  be  natural 
in  his  composition,  we  must  expect  that  much  of  his 
writing  will  be  argumentative.  In  spite,  however,  of 
this  natural  tendency,  few  people  have  the  ability  to 
argue  well.  The  strife  incident  to  the  difference  of 
opinion  between  uneducated  people,  the  unsatisfactory 
results  from  their  discussions,  and  the  ease  with  which 


DEBATE.  213 

skilled  orators  can  turn  an  excited  audience  from  one 
opinion  to  another,  show  clearly  that  the  force  of  an 
argument  depends  chiefly  on  the  way  in  which  it 
is  put. 

Logic  and  Rhetoric.  —  The  study  of  the  laws  of 
thought  and  an  analysis  of  the  ways  in  which  the 
human  mind  arrives  at  knowledge  and  conviction,  do 
not  belong  to  our  subject.  But  when  one  is  attempt- 
ing to  prove  any  proposition,  or  to  convince  readers 
or  listeners  of  any  matter,  it  is  most  important  that 
he  should  express  himself  so  that  his  ideas  may  be 
apprehended  with  the  least  possible  effort.  Without 
method  most  arguments  become  a  hopeless  confusion 
of  facts,  beliefs,  and  illustrations.  Often  the  real 
question  is  lost  sight  of,  and  m.uch  breath  or  ink  ex- 
pended to  no  purpose.  We,  therefore,  give  a  few 
suggestions,  the  observance  of  which  will  enable  the 
student  to  arrange  the  material  to  be  used  in  an  argu- 
ment, so  that  the  reader  or  listener  will  readily  appre- 
ciate its  bearing  upon  the  question  at  issue. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

I.  Begin  with  a  clear  ajid  complete  explanation  of  the 
question. 

Before  arguments  on  either  side  can  have  any 
weight,  the  exact  nature  and  extent  of  the  question 
must  be  thoroughly  understood :  therefore  the  first 
requisite  for  an  intelligent  and  persuasive  argument 
is  a  clear  and  complete  exposition.  Nothing  else 
will  aid  so  much  towards  securing  a  speedy  and  satis- 
factory settlement.  For  example,  a  body  of  men,  in 
drawing  up  regulations  for  a  charitable  institution,  are 


214  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

undecided  whether  to  prohibit  card  playing.  A  discus- 
sion ensues;  and  the  man  who  does  not  consider  it 
wrong  to  play  cards  himself  will  listen  to  no  arguments, 
for  he  has  assumed  that  they  are  discussing  the  moral- 
ity or  immorality  of  card  playing :  whereas  the  ethics 
of  ordinary  card  playing  may  not  in  the  least  affect  the 
question ;  for  it  is  often  necessary,  for  the  best  of 
reasons,  to  exclude  from  an  institution  articles  which  are 
no  evil  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  such  as  guns  and 
dogs ;  and  the  question  ought  to  be  strictly  confined  to 
the  compatibility  of  uncontrolled  card  playing  with  the 
purposes  and  regulations  of  this  particular  institution. 
If  the  question  were  so  stated  at  the  outset,  there  would 
be  no  danger  of  falling  into  the  side  issue,  or  of  failing 
to  settle  in  the  end  the  question  that  was  proposed  at 
the  outset. 

A  skillful  debater  may  state  a  question  so  as  to  gain 
as  much  by  his  exposition  as  by  argument ;  for  the 
strength  of  the  right  and  the  weakness  of  the  wrong 
may  be  made  evident  by  simple  statement.  A  recital 
of  all  the  incidents  of  a  crime  is  sometimes  the  strong- 
est weapon  to  be  used  against  a  prisoner  at  the  bar. 

II.  Explain  fairly  just  what  each  side  of  the  question 
means y  stating  which  side  you  are  supporting. 

There  is  no  more  forcible  argument  in  a  plea  for 
honesty,  sobriety,  morality,  or  cleanliness,  than  to  state 
the  other  side  and  ask  a  man  to  defend  it.  Nothing  is 
ever  gained  by  misrepresenting  the  other  side;  for 
should  the  audience  discover  the  misrepresentations, 
or  should  they  be  exposed  by  an  opponent,  all  further 
statements  would  be  discredited,  and,  even  if  perfectly 
true,  lose  much  of  their  force. 


DEBATE.  2 1 5 

III.  State  your  agreement  with  the  opposite  side  ;  also 
state  and  answer  any  evident  objection  to  the  side  sup- 
ported. 

By  doing  this,  attention  is  secured ;  for  the  person 
who  has  already  decided  the  question  against  the 
speaker,  on  account  of  a  supposed  unanswerable  argu- 
ment, will  be  in  no  attitude  for  listening,  until  he  sees 
that  this  objection  is  realized  and  to  be  squarely  faced. 
Also  one  may  in  this  way  for  a  while  enlist  the  sym- 
pathy of  those  opposed  to  his  proposition,  and  may  pos- 
sibly hold  their  sympathy  when  he  resumes  the  defense 
of  his  own  side.  In  addressing  a  mob,  a  speaker  would 
generally  be  silenced  by  hooting,  unless  he  began  by 
showing  his  appreciation  of  its  grievances. 

IV.  Find  a  proposition  which  your  opponent^  or  all 
reasonable  persons,  must  admit,  and  use  this  as  a  common 
ground  on  which  to  build  your  argument. 

No  argument  can  be  advanced  with  effect  unless 
based  on  a  proposition  to  which  both  sides  agree.  There 
are  certain  maxims,  laws,  or  decisions,  that  all  lawyers 
and  courts  must  accept;  and  law  pleading  must  be  based 
on  these ;  but  in  ordinary  debate  it  is  necessary  to  find 
some  proposition  that  your  opponent  will  admit,  or  to 
find  some  universally  admitted  proposition,  before  you 
can  be  certain  that  you  have  a  common  ground. 

When  we  hear  from  the  lips  of  a  speaker,  "  Now  all 
will  admit  this,"  or  "Everybody  believes  as  follows," 
we  know  that  he  is  stating  the  foundation  for  his  argu- 
ment. For  example,  in  appealing  to  any  one  for  a 
subscription,  after  the  person  appealed  to  has  declared 
his  willingness  to  subscribe  to  all  worthy  charities,  one 


2l6  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

has  simply  to  prove  the  worthiness  of  the  charity  he  is 
representing.  If,  however,  the  man  appealed  to  raises 
the  question  whether  all  charity  does  not  tend  to  pau- 
perize those  who  receive  it  and  to  increase  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  coming  generation,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  convince  him  of  several  preliminary  propositions, 
before  it  will  be  of  use  to  describe  the  merits  of  the 
charity  under  consideration. 

V.  Select  the  strongest  arguments^  state  them  sepa- 
rately^ and  make  clear  the  exact  bearing  of  each  with 
reference  to  the  proof  of  the  main  proposition. 

How  often  when  listening  to  a  speaker  do  we  fail  to 
appreciate  the  bearing  of  what  he  is  saying,  and  wonder 
what  he  is  driving  at.  To  make  sure  that  all  arguments 
will  have  their  full  weight,  the  syllogism  in  each  should 
be  easily  discernible. 

A  syllogism  is  the  regular  logical  form  of  every  argu- 
ment, and  consists  of  three  propositions,  of  which  the 
first  is  called  the  major  premise^  the  second  the  minor 
premise^  and  the  last  the  conclusion. 

The  conclusion  necessarily  follows  from  the  premises ; 
so  that  if  these  are  true,  the  conclusion  must  be  true; 
and  the  argument  amounts  to  demonstration. 

Ex.    I.  Major  Pretnise.  —  A  charity  that  aids  only  the  deserving 

and  helpless  is  a  worthy  charity. 
Minor  Premise.  —  This  charity  aids  only  the  deserving 
and  helpless. 
Conclusion.  —  This  is  a  worthy  charity. 

Ex.   2.  Major  Premise.  —  A  worthy  charity  deserves  your  assist- 
ance. 
Minor  Premise.  — This  is  a  worthy  charity. 

Conclusion.  —  This  charity  deserves  your  assistance. 


DEBATE.  217 

When  the  conclusion  of  one  syllogism  forms  a  prem- 
ise of  the  next,  a  chain  of  argument  is  formed. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  all  arguments  should  be  for- 
mally reduced  to  syllogisms  with  all  the  terms  expressed ; 
but  by  stating  that  the  syllogism  in  each  argument 
should  be  easily  discernible,  we  mean  that  the  relation 
between  premises  and  conclusions,  and  the  relation  be- 
tween each  argument  and  those  based  upon  it  should  be 
evident. 

VI.  Answer  your  opponenfs  arguments^  or  if  speaking 
before  him^  anticipate  and  answer  the  chief  arguments  on 
the  opposite  side. 

By  stating  and  answering  an  argument  before  it  is 
advanced  by  the  opposition,  the  force  of  it  when  so 
advanced  will  be  very  much  impaired. 

VII.  Conclude  with  a  brief  summary y  making  evident 
the  complete  chain  of  argument. 

Do  not,  however,  make  the  summary  a  repetition  in 
detail  of  any  part  of  the  debate,  but  confine  the  con- 
clusion to  a  clear  and  concise  enumeration  of  points 
made  in  the  preceding  argument. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS. 

The  Object  of  Punctuation.  —  In  conversation,  the 
grammatical  construction  of  sentences  and  the  rela- 
tions of  words  are  to  a  certain  extent  indicated  by 
pauses,  and  inflections  of  the  voice.  For  example,  in 
the  imperative  sentence,  Boys^  run  home  quickly,  the 
pause  after  the  word  boys  tells,  as  clearly  as  any  words 
could  explain,  that  boys  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb 
run,  but  the  vocative  of  the  direct  address.  Leave  out 
the  pause,  and  boys  becomes  the  subject  of  the  verb, 
and  we  have  the  declarative  sentence.  Boys  nm  horne 
quickly. 

In  written  language  the  grammatical  construction  is 
exhibited  by  punctuation ;  i.e.,  by  separating  sentences 
and  the  parts  of  sentences  from  each  other  by  means  of 
symbols  called  punctuation  points. 

If  in  conversation  pauses  were  made  only  for  the 
sake  of  showing  grammatical  construction,  and  if  all 
grammatical  constructions  were  exhibited  by  pauses  of 
the  same  length,  there  would  be  but  a  single  rule  to 
learn  for  all  punctuation;  viz..  Put  a  point  wherever 
the  voice  would  make  a  pause.  As,  however,  in  speak- 
ing, pauses  are  often  made  for  rhetorical  effect,  or  to 
gain  time  for  breathing,  and  as  pauses  of  different 
lengths  are  made  to  show  different  constructions,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  punctuate  by  following  the  pauses 

218 


PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  219 

that  would  be  made  in  speaking.  It  is  far  easier  to 
apply  directly  the  rules  for  punctuating  according  to 
the  grammatical  construction.  As  in  all  other  depart- 
ments of  rhetoric,  these  rules  are  determined  by  the 
best  usage.  » 

Relative  Rank  of  the  Principal  Points.  —  Cases  may 
arise  where  the  sentence  is  to  be  divided  into  groups 
of  words  or  clauses,  and  these  groups  into  still  smaller 
subdivisions.  Then,  one  symbol,  or  pauses  of  the 
same  length,  would  not  be  sufficient.  For  example, 
the  line  below  is  to  be  divided  into  three  equal 
parts,  and  each  of  these  parts  is  itself  to  be  divided 
into  three  equal  parts.  One  point  or  pause  would 
fail  to  exhibit  these  divisions,  as  can  readily  be  seen 
below :  — 


Let  two  points  be  used,  or  pauses  of  two  lengths,  and 
the  twofold  division  is  clearly  exhibited :  — 


Just  as  in  an  army,  companies  are  commanded  by 
captains,  regiments  by  colonels,  and  brigades  by  gen- 
erals; so  in  punctuation,  the  comma,  the  lowest  point, 
is  used  between  the  short  and  closely  connected  parts 
of  a  sentence ;  the  semicolon  comes  next  in  rank,  and 
separates  the  parts  of  a  sentence  which  are  themselves 
already  divided  by  the  comma ;  while  the  colon  sepa- 
rates parts  already  divided  by  the  semicolon.  The 
period,  the  interrogation  point,  and  the  exclamation 
point  are  used  chiefly  at  the  close  of  sentences. 


220  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Punctuation  and  Grammar. — The  object  of  punct- 
uating, as  has  been  already  explained,  is  to  exhibit 
the  grammatical  construction  of  what  is  written.  A 
chapter  on  punctuation  must  therefore  deal  largely 
with  grammatical  terms.  For  this  reason,  although  it 
has  been  assumed  that  the  students  of  this  book  have 
a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  English  grammar,  it 
will  be  profitable,  before  proceeding  with  the  rules  for 
punctuation,  to  review  the  definitions  of  the  grammatical 
terms  mentioned  in  these  rules. 

DEFINITIONS    OF    GRAMMATICAL    TERMS. 

A  sentence  is  a  collection  of  words  expressing  com- 
plete sense.  Every  sentence  must  have  two  parts  : 
a  subject^  that  which  is  spoken  of,  and  a  predicate^  that 
which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject ;  as.  The  boy  runs ; 
The  bird  flies;  The  locomotive  of  the  Empire  State 
Express  can  run  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  miles  an 
hour. 

In  each  of  the  above  examples  the  part  of  the  sen- 
tence underscored  is  the  subject ;  the  part  not  under- 
scored is  the  predicate. 

According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  thought  is  ex- 
pressed, sentences  may  be  divided  into  four  classes :  — 

1 .  Declarative  sentences^  in  which  a  thought  is  asserted 
or  affirmed. 

Ex.    He  is  good.     They  are  not  here. 

2.  Interrogative  sentences ^  in  which  the  thought  is  in 
the  form  of  a  question. 

Ex.    Is  it  good  ?    Are  they  here  ? 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  221 

3.  Imperative  sentences^  in  which  the  thought  is  in 
the  form  of  a  command. 

Ex.    Be  good.     Do  not  come  here. 

4.  Exclamatory  sentenceSy  in  which  feeling  or  emotion 
is  expressed  without  making  a  direct  statement. 

Ex.   How  good  he  is  !    Would  that  I  were  home  ! 

Sentences  are  also  classified  as  simple,  complex, 
or  compound,  according  to  the  relation  between  the 
parts. 

A  simple  sentence  is  divisible  into  a  single  subject  and 
single  predicate. 

Ex.    The  cold  winds  blow  from  the  north. 

A  complex  sentence  is  divisible  into  one  independ- 
ent statement  and  one  or  more  subordinate  state- 
ments. 

Ex.    The  man  that  bought  the  horse  came  for  him  this  morning. 

In  the  preceding  sentence  the  part  underscored  is  the 
independent  statement:  the  rest  depends  upon  it,  and 
does  not  make  sense  by  itself. 

A  compound  sentence  is  divisible  into  two  or  more 
independent  sentences,  each  of  which  makes  sense 
when  taken  by  itself. 

Ex.  One  of  them  came  at  nine  o'clock,  and  the  other  came  at  ten. 
The  party  reached  the  stream,  and  there  they  camped. 

Two  or  more  words  performing  the  office  of  a  single 
part  of  speech  and  not  having  a  subject  and  predicate 
are  called  a  phrase. 


222  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Ex.  The  wind  blows  from  the  north.    He  came  into  the  house. 
She  sat  under  an  elm. 

In  these  examples  the  parts  underscored  are  phrases. 

Two  or  more  words  performing  the  office  of  a  single 
part  of  speech  and  having  a  subject  and  predicate  are 
called  a  dependent  clause. 

A  dependent  clause  may  also  be  defined  as  a  subordi- 
nate statement. 

Ex.  When  the  guests  arrived,  the  band  began  to  play. 
He  worked  hard,  that  he  might  finish  quickly. 
I  do  not  understand  what  you  say. 

In  these  examples  the  parts  underscored  are  clauses. 


RULES   FOR   PUNCTUATION. 

THE    COMMA. 

I.     SUBJECT  AND    PREDICATE. 

When  the  subject  is  so  long  that  part  of  it  might  be 
mistaken  for  the  subject  of  a  verb  to  follow,  or  when  the 
subject  ends  with  a  verb  and  the  predicate  begins  with 
one,  a  comma  should  be  used  between  the  subject  and 
predicate. 

Ex.  That  the  First  Form  should  not  be  able  to  leave  papers  in 
their  desks  without  having  them  stolen  by  the  Second  Form, 
is  a  disgrace  to  the  school.  (The  comma  after  Form  shows 
that  the  entire  clause,  and  not  any  part  of  it,  is  the  subject 
of  is.^ 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 

To  say  that  he  sleeps,  is  to  say  that  he  is  better. 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  223 


II.     WORDS   IN   THE   SAME   CONSTRUCTION. 

1.  Words  and  short  phrases  in  the  same  construction 
should  be  separated  by  commas,  except  when  there  are 
only  two  words  or  phrases  and  they  are  connected  by 
conjunctions.  The  last  of  a  series  of  words,  when  not 
preceded  by  a  conjunction,  should  be  separated  by  a  comma 
from  the  portion  of  the  sentence  following. 

Ex.   The  good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful  are  to  be  found  in  all 

grades  of  life. 
The  good,  the  true,  the  beautiful,  are  to  be  found  in  all  grades 

of  life. 
It  seems  he  never,  never,  could  redeem  from  such  a  steadfast 

spell  his  lady's  eyes. 
He  sees  the  evil  and  the  good. 
Actions,  not  years,  determine  a  man's  life. 
Months  or  years  will  tell. 
Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  the  chief  products  of  the  country. 

Some  writers  omit  the  commas  in  the  case  of  three 
or  more  words  severally  connected  by  conjunctions ;  as, 
The  good  and  the  true  and  the  beautiful  are  to  be  found 
in  all  grades  of  life.  If,  however,  only  the  last  pair 
are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  the  comma  should  be 
placed  before  that  conjunction ;  as,  Men,  women,  and 
children  came  rushing  to  the  place. 

Ex.    In  Paris,  wits,  philosophers,  and  coffee-house  politicians  were 
all  to  a  man  warm  Americans. 

2.  When  one  of  two  words  or  phrases  connected  by  a 
conjunction  has  a  qualifier  that  does  not  belong  to  the 
other,  but  might  otherwise  be  supposed  to  belong  to  it, 
the  words  shoidd  be  separated  by  a  comma. 

Ex.   The  soldiers,  and  the  prisoners  of  the  enemy,  lay  down  to  rest. 


224  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

3.  When  the  second  of  two  words  connected  by  the 
conjunction  or  is  explanatory  of  the  first  or  a  definition 
of  it  J  the  words  should  be  separated  by  a  comma. 

Ex.   The  river,  or  streamlet,  was  full  of  trout. 

The  valley,  or  canon,  was  so  narrow  that  one  could  hardly  see 
the  sky  above. 

4.  If  words  in  the  same  construction  fiaturally  fall 
into  pairSy  the  commas  should  be  used  only  between 
the  pairs. 

Ex.    Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish. 

In  comfort  and  distress,  in  success  and  failure,  in  prosperity 
and  ruin,  he  exhibited  the  same  calmness  of  mind. 


III.     CLAUSES  AND  PHRASES. 

I.  Phrases  and  dependent  clauses  not  closely  and 
smoothly  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  should  be 
separated  from  it  by  commas.  If  the  phrase  or  clause  is 
at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  sentence^  one  comma  is  suffi- 
cient. 

Ex.   As  the  time  drew  near  for  action,  they  prepared  themselves  as 

best  they  could. 
With  this  conviction  of  the  importance  of  the  present  crisis, 

silence  in  me  would  be  a  crime. 
When  I  shall  be  called  upon,  I  shall  be  found  ready. 
If  you  do  not  believe  me,  ask  others. 

Note.  —  After  the  conjunction  and  or  but^  preceded  by  a  longer 
pause  than  the  comma,  the  first  comma  may  be  omitted. 

Ex.  We  now  enter  upon  a  new  subject ;  and  for  the  sake  of  order 
and  clearness,  it  is  proposed  to  separate  this  subject  into  two 
branches.     (Comma  is  omitted  after  and.^ 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  225 

If  all  kinds  of  phrases  and  clauses  were  enumerated 
and  a  rule  given  for  each,  every  one  of  these  rules  after 
naming  the  kind  of  clause  or  phrase,  whether  conditional, 
antithetical,  participial,  or  temporal,  would  end  by  say- 
ing, //",  hozvevery  it  is  closely  and  smoothly  connected  in 
thought  and  construction  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence, 
the  commas  may  be  omitted.  The  above  rule  will  do 
for  all. 

In  the  following  examples  the  dependent  clause  is  so 
closely  and  smoothly  joined  to  the  principal  clause  that 
no  punctuation  is  needed :  — 

I  shall  be  found  ready  when  they  call  me. 

They  will  accept  if  they  are  asked. 

We  came  upon  him  when  he  least  expected  it. 

2.  The  parts  of  a  compound  sentence,  if  short  and 
closely  connected,  should  be  separated  by  the  comma;  if 
long,  by  the  semicolon. 

In  the  following  short  compound  sentences  the  comma 
is  sufficient  punctuation  :  — 

The  door  was  locked,  and  the  key  was  in  it 
He  came  in,  and  they  all  called  for  help. 

In  the  following  sentence  the  parts  are  longer,  and 
the  semicolon  is  used  between  them  :  — 

He  came  into  the  house  in  a  great  hurry ;  and  before  long  every  one 
was  in  a  state  of  alarm. 

3.  When  a  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  —  i.e.,  when  it 
is  necessary  to  complete  the  meaning  of  its  antecedent,  — 
it  should  not  be  separated  by  punctuation  from  the  a7tte- 
cedent  clause.  When  not  restrictive,  —  i.e.,  when  making 
an  additional  statement  not  necessary  to  the  definition  of 

SCH.  ENG. —  15 


226  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

the  antecedenty  —  it  should  be  separated  from  the  ante- 
cedent clause  by  a  comma. 

Ex.    He  disliked  all  the  members  of  the  family  who  disagreed  with 
him. 
He  disliked  all  the  members  of  his  family,  who  disagreed  with 
him  continually.     (With  the  comma,  this  sentence  means  he 
disliked  all,  and  they  disagreed  with  him.) 

Distinguish  between  the  following  sentences  :  — 

He  left  one  thousand  dollars  to  his  first  son  who  should  graduate 

from  the  high  school. 
He  left  one  thousand  dollars  to  his  first  son,  who  should  graduate 

from  the  high  school. 

4.  Direct  quotations,  if  short  and  informally  introduced^ 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  tin 
comma;  if  long  and  formally  introduce d,  by  the  colon. 

Ex.    He  replied,  "  I  am  not  certain  of  this." 

He  looked  up  from  the  book  and  answered,  "There  will  be 

plenty  of  time  to  decide  that  later."' 
"  I  like  his  voice,"  thought  Bob,  "  and  he  has  a  pleasant  face." 
Xenophon  addressed  the  soldiers   in  these  words :   "  F'ellow- 

soldiers,  we  have  now  been,"  etc. 
The  president  arose  and  made  the  following  remarks:    "It 

seems  to  me  that  there  is  just  cause  for,"  etc. 

rv.     SPECIAL   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

The  following  constructions  are  always  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas.  If  they  occur  at  the 
beginning  or  end  of  their  clause,  one  comma  is  sufficient. 

I.     Vocative  expressions. 

Ex.   Mr.  President,  I  move  we  adjourn. 
John,  I  wish  you  would  come  here. 
I  propose,  sir,  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  committee. 
Let  us  hurry  on,  fellow^.3. 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  227 

2.  Words  ill  apposition. 

Ex.    Plato,  the  philosopher,  wrote  many  books. 
Og,  King  of  Bashan,  went  out  against  them. 
Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia. 

3 .  Words  or  phrases  out  of  their  natural  order ^  or  break- 
ing the  closely  related  paints  of  a  sentence. 

Ex.   This,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  included. 

He  felt,  however,  that  he  ought  to  have  gone. 
This,  I  repeat,  is  altogether  uncalled  for. 

4.  A  clause  or  phrase  removed  from  the  word  which 
it  qualifies,  if  otherwise  it  might  be  mistaken  as  quali- 
fying the  next  preceding  word. 

Ex.    They  came  out  to  meet  the  minister's  family,  dressed  in  their 
best  clothes.     (The  comma  after  family  shows  that  the  fol- 
lowing phrase  qualifies  they,  and  not  family.^ 
The  gentlemen  who  visited  Washington  this  week,  left  the 
President,  highly  elated  at  their  success. 

V.     ELLIPSIS. 

The  comma  marks  an  ellipsis  wherever  the  voice  woidd 
mark  such  ellipsis  with  a  pause. 

Ex.   The  children  thought  one  way ;  their  parents,  another. 

A  topical  memory  makes  man  an  almanac ;  a  talent  for  debate, 
a  disputant. 

VI.     THE   COMMA   OMITTED. 

The  comma  may  be  omitted  after  the  period  used  with 
abbreviations}  also  after  either  of  the  conjunctions  but  or 
and  folloiving  a  higher  pause. 

Ex.    He  came  to  a  river  bank ;  and  although  every  one  urged  him 
to  cross,  he  refused  to  do  so. 

1  The  comma  is  generally  retained  after  the  period  in  the  case  of  viz. 
and  i.e.,  but  should  be  omitted  in  references  to  volume,  chapter,  and  verse 
in  books,    Ex.  Vol.  II,  p.  137,  notNoX.  II.,  p.  137. 


228  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  tendency  of  many  writers  is  to  omit  the  comma 
wherever  the  sense  would  be  clear  without  any  punctu- 
ation. 

THE   SEMICOLON. 

1.  Two  or  more  clauses,  one  or  all  of  which  are  them- 
selves divided  by  commas,  should  be  separated  from  each 
other  by  the  semicolon. 

Ex.  He  was,  considering  the  disadvantage  he  labored  under,  doing 
vast  good ;  though  as  has  been  frankly  admitted,  it  may  not 
have  been  evident  to  alL 
Heralds  by  swift  relays  transmitted  the  war  message  from  hand, 
to  hand;  till  village  repeated  it  to  village,  the  sea  to  the 
vast  woods,  the  plains  to  the  highlands. 

2.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound sentence,  except  where  the  parts  are  short  and 
closely  connected,  and  between  complete  sentences  where 
the  period  would  indicate  too  long  a  pause. 

Ex.  Washington  felt  the  keenest  sensibility  at  their  distress ;  but 
he  had  exhausted  all  his  influence. 

It  provoked  the  unawakened  to  combine  against  him ;  but  one 
of  the  brethren  gave  liberty  to  eight  slaves. 

Life  lies  about  us  dumb  ;  day,  as  we  know  it,  has  not  yet  found 
a  tongue. 

From  distant  corners  of  the  street  they  ran  to  greet  his  hearty 
welcome ;  lords  of  his  house  were  they. 

As  the  summons  hurried  to  the  South,  it  was  one  day  at  New 
York,  in  one  more  at  Philadelphia;  the  next  it  lighted  a 
watchfire  at  Baltimore ;  thence  it  waked  an  answer  at  An- 
napolis. 

3.  The  semicolon  shoidd  be  used  before  as,  viz.,  e.g.,  to 
wit,  namely,  etc. ;  the  comma  should  be  used  after  them. 

Ex.  He  had  three  new  members  to  propose ;  namely,  Brown,  Jones, 
and  Smith. 


PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  229 

Ex.    There  are  only  two  exceptions  to  this  statement ;  to  wit,  the 
adjectives  this  and  that. 
He  proposed  to  visit  the  three  largest  cities  of  the  United 
States ;  viz.,  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia. 


THE    COLON. 

1.  Two  clauses^  one  or  both  of  which  are  subdivided  by 
the  semicolon^  should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
colon. 

Ex.  This  chapter  is  divided  into  two  sections  :  the  first,  which  was 
written  many  years  since,  being  a  history  of  the  institution ; 
the  second,  a  prophecy  as  to  its  future. 

2.  The  colon  is  used  before  all  direct  quotations^  if 
formally  introduced,  and  after  all  words  which  formally 
introduce  a  sentence  to  follow.  If  the  quoted  matter 
begins  a  new  paragraph^  the  colon  should  be  followed  by 
a  dash. 

Ex.   Caesar  spoke  as  follows :    (His  speech  to  follow.) 

He  replied  in  these  words :  "  I  shall  always  be  prepared  in 

future." 
My  dear  Friend  :    (A  letter  following.) 
After  this  manner  therefore  pray  ye  :  Our  Father,  etc. 
The  calamities  are  our  friends.     Ben  Jonson  specifies  in  his 

address  to  the  Muse  :  — 

"  Get  him  the  time's  long  grudge,  the  court's  ill-will, 
And,  reconciled,  keep  him  suspected  still ; 
Make  him  lose  all  his  friends,  and  what  is  worse, 
Almost  all  ways  to  any  better  course ; 
With  me  thou  leav'st  a  better  Muse  than  thee, 
And  which  thou  brought'st  me,  blessed  Poverty." 

3.  The  colon  is  sometimes  used  between  complete  sen- 
tences where  the  period  would  indicate  too  long  a  pause y 
and  the  semicolon  too  short  a  pause. 


230  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Ex.  It  was  a  dark  and  dreary  night :  the  wind  was  blowing  in  fitful 
gusts. 

It  is  over :  let  us  go. 

Our  botany  is  all  names,  not  powers :  poets  and  romancers 
talk  of  herbs  of  grace  and  healing ;  but  what  does  the  bota- 
nist know  of  the  virtue  of  his  weeds  ? 


THE   PERIOD. 

1.  The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  every  complete 
declarative  sentence,  not  in  a  series,  and  not  closely  con- 
nected in  thought  with  the  se^itence  following. 

Ex.   This  is  the  reason  why  beauty  is  still  escaping  out  of  all  analy- 
sis.    It  is  not  yet  possessed ;  it  cannot  be  handled. 

2.  The  period  is  used  to  mark  an  abbreviation,  after 
Roman  numerals,  and  as  a  decimal  point  in  ordinary 
figures. 

Ex.    Ex.,  viz.,  e.g.,  St.,  No.,  etc ,  XL,  XII.,  1.5,  1.03,  2.50,  .07. 


INTERROGATION    POINT. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  eitd  of  every  direct 
question,  hoivever  expressed,  whether  in  a  series  or  alone  ; 
but  indirect  questions  should  not  have  the  interrogation 
m,ark. 

Ex.    What  can  I  do  for  you  ? 
Now,  you  understand  ? 

How  old  are  you  ?    What  is  your  trade  ?    Where  do  you  live  ? 
How  did  this  happen  ?     When?     Where?     Why? 
I  asked  him  how  this  happened. 


PUNCTUATION   AND   CAPITALS.  23 1 


EXCLAMATION    POINT. 

The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  exclamatory  words 
and  phrases,  and  after  sentences  expressing  a  wish  or 
strong  emotion.  If  an  interjection  occurs  in  an  exclama- 
tory sentence,  the  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  end  of 
the  sentence  only. 

Ex.   Praise  be  thine,  O  God  ! 

Lost !    Lost !    O  that  I  were  home  ! 

Oh,  I  never,  never,  can  be  reconciled  to  this ! 

But  even  these  can  understand  the  cry  of  fire ! 

Give  me  of  your  bark,  O  Birch  Tree  ! 

O  the  long  and  dreary  winter  ! 


THE   DASH. 

The  dash  is  used  before  and  after  parenthetical  clauses, 
and  before  the  conclusion  after  a  series  of  clauses.  It 
is  used  where  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sen- 
tence is  changed,  or  brought  to  a  sudden  close,  also  to  shozv 
hesitation  in  speaking,  and  to  mark  the  omission  of  letters 
in  a  word. 

Ex.  Every  natural  feature  —  sea,  sky,  rainbow,  flowers,  musical 
tone  —  has  in  it  somewhat  which  is  not  private,  but  uni- 
versal. 

If  I  have  been  inconsiderate  of  the  feelings  of  any,  if  I  have 
proceeded  without  due  investigation  of  facts,  if  I  have  made 
a  single  unjust  remark,  —  I  stand  ready  to  make  every  repa- 
ration in  my  power. 

She  had  a  heart  —  how  shall  I  say  ?  —  too  soon  made  glad,  too 
easily  impressed. 

The  ultimate  cause  was  one  that  has  been  generally  recog- 
nized—  the  lack  of  proper  signals. 

He  was  a  —  a  —  a —  well,  you  know  exactly  what  I  mean. 


232  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


PARENTHESES. 

Parentheses  are  used  to  inclose  an  explanation^  author- 
ityy  definition^  reference,  translation,  or  any  matter  not 
belonging  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.    He  is  (and  I  make  this  statement  from  no  base  motive)  a  most 
thoroughly  corrupt  politician. 
John  Cabot  was  the  first  European  to  visit  the  continent  of 
North  America.    (Bancroft,  vol.  i.  p.  9.) 

BRACKETS. 

The  use  of  brackets  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
marks  of  parenthesis,  but  is  generally  confined  to  words 
inserted  in  quotations  for  the  sake  of  explanation. 

Ex.  Another  schoolmate,  Dr.  Henry  Dawson,  furnished  Mr.  Fors- 
ter  with  some  more  detailed  reminiscences,  from  which  we 
may  make  a  few  extracts. 

"  Dickens  has  given  a  very  lively  account  of  this  place  [the  Academy] 
in  his  paper  entitled  '  Our  School,'  but  it  is  very  mythical  in  many  re- 
spects, and  more  especially  in  the  compliment  he  pays  to  himself." 

QUOTATION    MARKS. 

Quotation  marks  are  used  before  and  after  a  passage 
quoted  in  the  exact  words  of  another.  Matter  quoted 
indirectly,  or  given  only  in  substance,  is  not  placed  within 
quotation  marks.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  in- 
closed in  single  mai^ks. 

Where  a  quotation  consists  of  several  paragraphs, 
quotation  f narks  shoidd  be  used  at  the  beginning  of  each 
paragraph,  but  at  the  close  of  the  last  paragraph  only. 

Titles  of  books,  essays,  newspapers,  etc.,  should  be  placed 
within  quotation  marks,  unless  in  italics  or  capitals. 


PUNCTUATION  AND  CAPITALS.  233 

Ex.  "Now,  by  St.  George,"  the  archer  cries, 

"  Edward,  methinks  we  have  a  prize  !  " 

Upon  the  completion  of  "The  Old  Curiosity  Shop"  in  the 
pages  of  the  "  Clock,"  "  Barnaby  Rudge  "  was  begun. 

The  following  is  from  the  letters  of  Charles 
Dickens '  — 

"The  child  lying  dead  in  the  little  sleeping-room,  which  is 
behind  the  open  screen.  It  is  winter  time,  so  there  are  no  flowers ; 
but  upon  her  breast  and  pillow,  and  about  her  bed,  there  may  be 
strips  of  holly  and  berries,,  and  such  free  green  things.  Window 
overgrown  with  ivy.  The  little  boy  who  had  that  talk  with  her 
about  angels  may  be  by  the  bedside,  if  you  like  it  so ;  but  I  think 
it  would  be  quieter  and  more  peaceful  if  she  is  quite  alone.  I  want 
it  to  express  the  most  beautiful  repose  and  tranquillity,  and  to  have 
something  of  a  happy  look,  if  death  can. 

"  The  child  has  been  buried  inside  the  church,  and  the  old  man, 
who  cannot  be  made  to  understand  that  she  is  dead,  repairs  to  the 
grave  and  sits  there  all  day  long,  waiting  for  her  arrival,  to  begin 
another  journey.  His  staff  and  knapsack,  her  little  bonnet  and 
basket,  etc.,  lie  beside  him.  'She'll  come  to-morrow,'  he  says 
when  it  gets  dark,  and  goes  sorrowfully  home.  I  think  an  hour- 
glass running  out  would  help  the  notion ;  perhaps  her  little  things 
upon  his  knee,  or  in  his  hand. 

"I  am  breaking  my  heart  over  this  story,  and  cannot  bear  to 
finish  it." 


HYPHEN. 

The  hyphen  is  used  between  the  parts  of  certain  com- 
pound wordsy  arid  to  mark  the  division  of  syllables  in 
showing  the  spelling  of  words.  It  is  sometimes  itsed  in 
place  of  the  dicBresis  after  a  prefix  ending  in  a  vowel 
before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Ex.    Horse-chestnut,  Franco-Prussian,  re-edit,  de-vi-ate,  truth-tell- 
ing, text-book. 


234  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

APOSTROPHE. 

The  apostrophe  is  used  in  the  possessive  case  of  nouns, 
to  denote  the  plural  of  figures  and  letters,  and  to  mark 
the  elisio7i  of  letters  at  the  beginning  or  middle  of  a 
wordy  and  the  omission  of  figures  in  a  number  or  date. 

Ex,   John's,  men's,   2's,  7's,  p's   and   q's,  I've,  TU,  don't,  won't, 
Po'keepsie,  tho',  '92,  '76. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 

For  the  sake  of  appearances,  and  also  to  facilitate  the 
apprehension  of  the  writer's  thoughts,  written  matter  is 
divided  into  paragraphs,  or  groups  of  sentences  which 
have  a  close  connection  in  thought.  The  paragraph  is 
indicated  by  beginning  on  the  line  next  after  the  close 
of  the  last  sentence  and  by  indenting  the  first  word  from 
the  margin. 

Every  group  of  sentences  closely  related  in  thought 
should  m.ake  one  paragraph.  When  a  new  subject  is  to 
be  treated,  or  where  any  change  is  made  in  the  m,ethod 
of  treatment,  a  paragraph  should  be  7nade.  In  a  written 
conversation,  a  change  of  speaker  should  be  indicated  by 
a  new  paragraph  or  by  a  dash. 


CAPITALS. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capital  let- 
ters :  — 

I .  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  of  every  line  of 
poetry,  of  every  paragraph  or  line  indented  from  the 
margin,  of  every  sentence  quoted  directly,  of  every  direct 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPHALS.  235 

question,    and  of  every  statement  or  precept  formally 
introduced. 

Ex.   May  I  ask  you,  Have  you  never  noticed  this  before  ? 

The  heart  should  ever  beat,  "  How  good  to  live  and  learn  !" 

Thy  voice  is  on  the  rolling  air ; 

I  hear  thee  when  the  waters  run ; 

Thou  standest  in  the  rising  sun, 
And  in  the  setting  thou  art  fair. 

A  good  rule  to  keep  in  mind  is  as  follows :  Cut  every  long 
sentence  into  two  parts. 

2.  Every  p7vper  noun,  every  important  zvord  tised  alone 
or  in  a  combination  of  words  to  designate  the  individual 
name^  of  any  person,  place,  time,  or  thing,  and  every 
word  derived  from  a  proper  noun,  unless  by  long  usage 
it  has  lost  its  derivative  significance. 

Ex.  David,  Francis,  Smith,  tne  Black  Prince,  the  West,  the  North, 
the  Lowlands,  the  Highlands  {b?it,  He  sailed  west ;  There 
are  many  lowlands  in  this  peninsula),  the  Revolution,  the 
Father  of  the  Faithful,  the  Christian  era,  the  Constitution, 
Sunday,  Tuesday,  January,  September,  God,  Satan,  Jehovah, 
Paris,  Uncle  John,  the  Bishop  of  New  Jersey,  the  Peninsular 
Campaign,  Scotch  broth,  Johnsonian  style. 

3.  All  important  words  in  the  titles  of  books  or 
essays. 

Ex.    A  History  of  the  Rebellion. 
Upward  and  Onward. 
Free  Trade  and  Protection. 
Put  Yourself  in  his  Place. 
Milton's  Select  Poems. 

1  Whenever  any  word  or  words  are  used  in  place  of  a  proper  name,  the 
words  are  capitalized;  but  the  same  words,  though  designating  the  same 
object,  if  used  as  common  nouns,  should  not  be  capitalized.     (Ex.  Good 


236  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

4.  The  words  I  and  O. 

5 .  Personal  pronouns  referring  to  God,  when  nsed  in 
direct  address^  or  where  the  capitals  may  help  to  indicate 
the  antecedent. 

Ex.    Praise  be  Thine,  O  God. 
Our  times  are  in  His  hands. 

6.  Nouns  i7idicating  personified  objects^  wheft  used 
distinctly  as  proper  names. 

Ex.    Grace,  Beauty,  and  Caprice 
Build  this  golden  portal ; 
Graceful  women,  chosen  men, 
Dazzle  every  mortal. 

(See  examples,  p.  129.) 

EXERCISE   IN   PUNCTUATION. 

Explain  according  to  the  rules  given  in  this  book,  the 
reason  for  each  punctuation  point  used  in  the  following 
extract. 

A  COUNTRY  PARSONAGE. 

[from   goldsmith's   "  VICAR   OF  WAKEFIELD."] 

A  proof  that  even  the  humblest  fortune  may  grant  happiness,  which  depends 
not  on  circumstances  but  constitution. 

The  place  of  our  retreat  was  in  a  little  neighborhood  con- 
sisting of  farmers,  who  tilled  their  own  grounds,  and  were 
equal  strangers  to  opulence  and  poverty.  As  they  had  almost 
all  the  conveniences  of  life  within  themselves,  they  seldom  vis- 
ited towns  or  cities,  in  search  of  superfluities.     Remote  from  the 

morning,  Uncle  John  !  How  now,  Brother  William  ?  President  Harrison. 
I  saw  my  uncle.  How  is  your  brother?  He  is  president  of  three  societies.) 
Fragmentary  quotations  need  not  commence  with  a  capital. 


PUNCTUATION  AND   CAPITALS.  237 

polite,  they  still  retained  the  primeval  simplicity  of  manners ; 
and  frugal  by  habit,  they  scarcely  knew  that  temperance  was  a 
virtue.  They  wrought  with  cheerfulness  on  days  of  labor,  but 
observed  festivals  as  intervals  of  idleness  and  pleasure.  They 
kept  up  the  Christmas  carol,  sent  true-love-knots  on  Valentine 
morning,  eat  pancakes  on  Shrove-tide,  showed  their  wit  on  the 
first  of  April,  and  religiously  cracked  nuts  on  Michaelmas  eve. 
Being  apprized  of  our  approach,  the  whole  neighborhood  came 
out  to  meet  their  minister,  dressed  in  their  finest  clothes,  and 
preceded  by  a  pipe  and  tabor.  A  feast  also  was  provided  for 
our  reception,  at  which  we  sat  cheerfully  down ;  and  what  the 
conversation  wanted  in  wit,  was  made  up  in  laughter. 

Our  little  habitation  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  sloping  hill, 
sheltered  with  a  beautiful  underwood  behind,  and  a  prattling 
river  before,  on  one  side  a  meadow,  on  the  other  a  green. 
My  farm  consisted  of  about  twenty  acres  of  excellent  land, 
having  given  an  hundred  pound  for  my  predecessor's  good- 
will. Nothing  could  exceed  the  neatness  of  my  little  inclos- 
ures,  the  elms  and  hedgerows  appearing  with  inexpressible 
beauty.  My  house  consisted  of  but  one  story,  and  was  cov- 
ered with  thatch,  which  gave  it  an  air  of  great  snugness.  The 
walls  on  the  inside  were  nicely  whitewashed,  and  my  daughters 
undertook  to  adorn  them  with  pictures  of  their  own  designing. 
Though  the  same  room  served  us  for  parlor  and  kitchen,  that 
only  made  it  the  warmer.  Besides,  as  it  was  kept  with  the 
utmost  neatness,  the  dishes,  plates,  and  coppers  being  well 
scoured,  and  all  disposed  in  bright  rows  on  the  shelves,  the 
eye  was  agreeably  relieved,  and  did  not  want  richer  furniture. 
There  were  three  other  apartments,  one  for  my  wife  and  me, 
another  for  our  two  daughters,  within  our  own,  and  the  third, 
with  two  beds,  for  the  rest  of  the  children. 

The  little  republic  to  which  I  gave  laws,  was  regulated  in  the 
following  manner  :  by  sunrise  we  all  assembled  in  our  common 
apartment,  the  fire  being  previously  kindled  by  the  servant. 
After  we  had  saluted  each  other  with  proper  ceremony,  for  I 


238  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

always  thought  fit  to  keep  up  some  mechanical  forms  of  good 
breeding,  without  which  freedom  ever  destroys  friendship,  we 
all  bent  in  gratitude  to  that  Being  who  gave  us  another  day. 
This  duty  being  performed,  my  son  and  I  went  to  pursue  our 
usual  industry  abroad,  while  my  wife  and  daughters  employed 
themselves  in  providing  breakfast,  which  was  always  ready  at 
a  certain  time.  I  allowed  half  an  hour  for  this  meal,  and  an 
hour  for  dinner ;  which  time  was  taken  up  in  innocent  mirth 
between  my  wife  and  daughters,  and  in  philosophical  arguments 
between  my  son  and  me. 

As  we  rose  with  the  sun,  so  we  never  pursued  our  labors 
after  it  was  gone  down,  but  returned  home  to  the  expecting 
family ;  where  smiling  looks,  a  neat  hearth,  and  pleasant  fire 
were  prepared  for  our  reception.  Nor  were  we  without  guests  : 
sometimes  farmer  Flamborough,  our  talkative  neighbor,  and 
often  the  blind  piper  would  pay  us  a  visit,  and  taste  our  goose- 
berry wine,  for  the  making  of  which  we  had  lost  neither  the 
receipt  nor  the  reputation.  These  harmless  people  had  several 
ways  of  being  good  company;  w^hile  one  played,  the  other 
would  sing  some  soothing  ballad,  "Johnny  Armstrong's  Last 
Good  Night,"  or  "The  Cruelty  of  Barbary  Allen."  The  night 
was  concluded  in  the  manner  we  began  the  morning,  my 
youngest  boys  being  appointed  to  read  the  lessons  of  the 
day;  and  he  that  read  loudest,  distinctest,  and  best,  was  to 
have  an  halfpenny  on  Sunday  to  put  in  the  poor's  box. 

When  Sunday  came,  it  was  indeed  a  day  of  finery,  which  all 
my  sumptuary  edicts  could  not  restrain.  How  well  soever  I 
fancied  my  lectures  against  pride  had  conquered  the  vanity  of 
my  daughters,  yet  I  found  them  still  secretly  attached  to  all 
their  former  finery  :  they  still  loved  laces,  ribbons,  bugles,  and 
catgut.  My  wife  herself  retained  a  passion  for  her  crimson 
paduasoy,  because  I  formerly  happened  to  say  it  became  her. 

The  first  Sunday  in  particular  their  behavior  served  to  mor- 
tify me.  I  had  desired  my  girls  the  preceding  night  to  be 
dressed  early  the  next  day ;  for  I  always  loved  to  be  at  church 


PUNCTUATION   AND   CAPITALS.  239 

a  good  while  before  the  rest  of  the  congregation.  They  punc- 
tually obeyed  my  directions  ;  but  when  we  were  to  assemble  in 
the  morning  at  breakfast,  down  came  my  wife  and  daughters, 
dressed  out  all  in  their  former  splendor,  their  hair  plastered 
up  with  pomatum,  their  faces  patched  to  taste,  their  trains 
bundled  up  in  a  heap  behind,  and  rustling  at  every  motion.  I 
could  not  help  smiling  at  their  vanity,  particularly  that  of  my 
wife,  from  whom  I  expected  more  discretion.  In  this  exi- 
gence, therefore,  my  only  resource  was  to  order  my  son,  with 
an  important  air,  to  call  our  coach.  The  girls  were  amazed  at 
the  command;  but  I  repeated  it  with  more  solemnity  than 
before.  —  "Surely,  my  dear,  you  jest,"  cried  my  wife,  ^'^we  can 
walk  it  perfectly  well :  we  want  no  coach  to  carry  us  now."  — 
"You  mistake,  child,"  returned  I,  "we  do  want  a  coach;  for 
if  we  walk  to  church  in  this  trim,  the  very  children  in  the 
parish  will  hoot  after  us."  —  "  Indeed,"  replied  my  wife,  "  I 
always  imagined  that  my  Charles  was  fond  of  seeing  his  chil- 
dren neat  and  handsome  about  him."  —  "  You  may  be  as  neat  as 
you  please,"  interrupted  I,  "  and  I  shall  love  you  the  better  for 
it ;  but  all  this  is  not  neatness,  but  frippery.  These  rufflings, 
and  pinkings,  and  patchings  will  only  make  us  hated  by  all  the 
wives  of  all  our  neighbors.  No,  my  children,"  continued  I 
more  gravely,  "  those  gowns  may  be  altered  into  something  of  a 
plainer  cut ;  for  finery  is  very  unbecoming  in  us,  who  want  the 
means  of  decency.  I  do  not  know  whether  such  flouncing 
and  shredding  is  becoming  even  in  the  rich,  if  we  consider, 
upon  a  moderate  calculation,  that  the  nakedness  of  the  indigent 
world  may  be  clothed  from  the  trimmings  of  the  vain." 

This  remonstrance  had  the  proper  effect ;  they  went  with 
great  composure,  that  very  instant,  to  change  their  dress ;  and 
the  next  day  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  my  daughters,  at 
their  own  request,  employed  in  cutting  up  their  trains  into 
Sunday  waistcoats  for  Dick  and  Bill,  the  two  little  ones ;  and 
what  was  still  more  satisfactory,  the  gowns  seemed  improved 
by  this  curtailing. 


APPENDIX. 


A   SHORT  HISTORY  OF    THE    ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 

Origin  of  the  English  People.  —  Notice,  in  the  first 
place,  that  in  the  Table  of  Aryan  Languages,^  English 
appears  as  a  member  of  the  Teutonic,  or  Germanic, 
group.  For  the  origin  of  the  English  people  and 
language,  we  must  look  far  away  from  England  itself 
to  that  part  of  Europe  now  comprising  the  kingdom 
of  Denmark  and  the  Prussian  province  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein.  Here,  until  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
lived  three  tribes  of  the  Teutonic  family,  —  the  Jutes, 
the  Angles  (or  English),  and  the  Saxons.  There  was 
undoubtedly  a  difference  in  dialect  among  these  tribes ; 
but  they  all  had  substantially  the  same  language. 

Religion  and  Habits.  —  The  religion  of  the  Angles, 
Jutes,  and  Saxons  was  that  of  the  other  tribes  of  the 
Teutonic  group.  Their  chief  god  was  Woden,  the 
war  god.  Our  names  for  the  days  of  the  week  still 
preserve  to  us  the  names  of  several  of  their  gods 
and  goddesses.  Wednesday  is  Woden's  day;  Thurs- 
day preserves  the  name  of  Thor,  the  god  of  thunder ; 
Friday,  the  name  of  the  goddess  Frigu.     Tacitus  has 

-  See  p.  22. 
240 


APPENDIX.  241 

given  us  an  interesting  description  of  the  Saxons,  or 
English,  before  they  left  their  native  soil.  They  were  a 
nation  of  farmers  and  herdsmen ;  but  the  barrenness  of 
their  country  drove  them  to  the  sea,  and  they  became 
the  terror  of  the  tribes  about  them.  A  Roman  poet 
writes  of  them,  that  they  were  fierce  beyond  all  other 
foes ;  that  the  sea  was  their  home,  and  the  storm  their 
friend.  He  calls  them  sea  wolves,  for  they  lived  upon 
the  pillage  of  the  world.  But  let  us  see  how  the  lan- 
guage of  these  Angles  and  Saxons  became  the  language 
of  England. 

Celtic  Britain  and  Roman  Conquest.  —  When  England 
was  first  made  known  to  the  civilized  world  of  Rome,  it 
was  inhabited  by  a  warlike  Celtic  race  called  Britons, 
and  was  known  as  Britain.  Julius  Caesar  landed  upon  the 
island  in  55  B.C.,  but  not  until  nearly  a  century  later  was 
the  conquest  completed.  A  Roman  general,  Agricola, 
carried  the  Roman  occupation  as  far  north  as  the  Clyde 
and  the  Firth  of  Forth.  A  military  government  was 
established,  and  Britain  became  a  Roman  province.  A 
network  of  well-built  roads  covered  the  island  ;  agricul- 
ture was  encouraged ;  and  the  products  of  Britain  were 
sent  from  its  seaports  to  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 
Roman  occupation  continued  for  nearly  four  hundred 
years,  during  which  time  Britain  became  civilized  and 
Romanized.  In  the  country  the  Celtic  speech  survived, 
but  Latin  was  the  language  of  the  cities. 

In  A.  D.  411  the  Roman  legions  were  withdrawn  from 
Britain,  in  order  to  protect  Rome  from  the  invasion  of  the 
barbarians,  who  were  pressing  upon  it  from  the  north. 

Saxon  Conquest  of  Britain.  —  After  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Roman  soldiers,  the  unprotected  Britons  were  attacked 
by  the  wild  tribes  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  called  Scots 

SCH.  ENG. —  16 


242  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

and  Picts,  which  Roman  rule  and  civilization  had  never 
reached.  Centuries  of  protection  by  Roman  arms,  and 
the  despotic  crushing  of  all  independence  and  national 
spirit,  had  rendered  the  Britons  powerless  to  defend  them- 
selves against  their  warlike  neighbors.  The  east  coast  of 
the  island  had  been  subject  to  frequent  attacks  from  the 
Angles,  Jutes,  and  Saxons.  In  their  extremity  the  rulers 
of  Britain  tried  to  match  these  pirates  against  their 
enemies  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Land  was  promised 
as  a  reward  for  their  services ;  and  in  449  a  fleet  of  boats 
from  Jutland  landed  warriors  on  the  Island  of  Thanet, 
a  short  distance  from  where  Canterbury  now  stands. 
The  Picts  were  defeated ;  but  the  Jutes,  reenforced  by 
additional  bands  from  home,  became  the  most  danger- 
ous foe  that  the  Britons  had  yet  known.  More  pay  and 
rations  were  demanded  than  could  be  supplied,  and  the 
Teutonic  invaders  turned  upon  the  Britons,  defeated 
them  in  one  battle  after  another,  and  in  the  course  of 
time  conquered,  exterminated,  or  absorbed  almost  the 
entire  British  population  as  far  west  as  Wales  and 
Cornwall.  Britain  thus  became  Teutonic,  and  the  later 
supremacy  of  the  Angles  accounts  for  its  present  name 
of  England. 

Saxon  Kingdoms.  —  The  Jutes,  in  all  probability, 
formed  the  first  permanent  Teutonic  settlement  in  Eng- 
land. This  settlement,  however,  was  comparatively 
small.  The  Saxons  were  the  first  invaders  with  whom 
the  Britons  had  to  deal  in  large  numbers.  They,  there- 
fore, gave  the  name  of  Saxons  to  all  invaders  from  the 
continent.  The  Angles  occupied  a  much  greater  share 
of  land  than  the  Saxons ;  and  therefore  as  soon  as  the 
Teutonic  settlers  began  to  bear  a  common  name  among 
themselves,  they  were  called  Angles,  or  English.      In 


APPENDIX.  243 

the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  century  the  term  Anglo- 
Saxon  became  prevalent  as  the  common  designation  of 
the  race  and  language  of  the  Teutonic  settlers  in  Eng- 
land. No  sooner  were  the  wars  with  the  Britons  ended, 
than  the  Anglo-Saxons  began  fighting  among  them- 
selves for  the  mastery  of  the  conquered  territory.  For 
a  long  time,  Angles,  Jutes,  and  Saxons  were  distinct 
tribes  in  England.  Different  bands  of  each  tribe  main- 
tained at  first  their  individual  existence ;  and  the  island 
was  divided  among  a  crowd  of  smaller  states,  and  a 
few  kingdoms,  seven  or  eight  in  number,  among  which 
in  course  of  time  three  or  four  stand  out  as  aspiring 
for  the  general  supremacy  of  the  country.  These 
seven  or  eight  kingdoms  are  generally  known  as  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy.  They  were  Kent,  the  settlement  of 
the  Jutes,  Sussex  (South  Saxons),  Essex  (East  Saxons), 
Wessex  (West  Saxons),  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  Angles, 
known  as  East  Anglia,  Bernicia,  Deira,  and  Mercia. 
Bernicia  and  Deira  united  and  formed  Northumbria. 
Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  Wessex  for  a  long  time  dis- 
puted with  each  other  the  supremacy  of  the  tribes. 
Finally  Wessex  gained  the  ascendency,  and  England 
became  one  nation  under  West  Saxon  kings. 

Remnant  of  the  Celts.  —  The  Picts  and  Scots  who 
remained  unconquered  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and 
the  remnant  of  the  Britons  confined  to  Wales  and 
Cornwall,  were  Celts.  The  Gaelic,  or  Highland  Scotch, 
the  Irish,  the  Manx,  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Welsh  and 
the  Cornish,  are  to-day  Celtic  people  ;  and  though  the 
English  language  is  used  by  the  educated  classes,  the 
native  Celtic  speech  is  still  spoken  by  all  these  races 
except  in  Cornwall,  where  English  has  replaced  it 
altogether. 


244  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

THE   ANGLO-SAXON    LANGUAGE. 

The  Foundation  of  English.  —  Thus  we  see  that  what- 
ever happened  in  England  before  the  Saxon  Conquest 
had  little  influence  on  the  development  of  the  English 
language.  It  is  important  for  the  student  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the  language  we  speak  has  for  its  foundation, 
not  the  speech  of  the  Celtic  Briton,  but  that  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  conqueror.  Although  our  modern  English 
is  built  on  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  two  languages  or  dialects 
are  so  different  that  no  amount  of  familiarity  with 
modern  English  will  enable  one  without  special  study- 
to  read  Anglo-Saxon. 

Anglo-Saxon  Inflections.  —  Besides  having  a  very  dif- 
ferent vocabulary  from  modern  English,  Anglo-Saxon 
was  a  highly  inflected  language.  The  relations  of  words 
to  each  other  were  exhibited  by  changes  in  their  endings. 
In  English  there  are  scarcely  any  inflectional  endings. 
The  relations  of  words  in  a  sentence  are  designated  by 
prepositions  or  by  the  order  of  the  words.  The  plural  s 
of  nouns,  the  's  of  the  possessive  case,  the  personal  and 
tense  endings  of  the  verb,  the  terminations  used  in  the 
comparison  of  adjectives,  and  a  few  forms  of  the  pro- 
nouns comprise  nearly  all  the  inflectional  forms  in 
modern  English. 

Ex.  Nominative,  John;  Possessive,  John's;  Present,  I  love,  thou 
lovest,  he  loves ;  Past,  I  loved,  thou  lovedest,  he  loved ; 
Present  Participle,  loving;  ^d  Personal  Pronoun,  he,  his, 
him,  they,  their  or  theirs,  them. 

Anglo-Saxon  nouns  had  three  or  four  cases  in  both  sin- 
gular and  plural :  the  nominative,  the  genitive  or  posses- 
sive, the  dative,  and  the  accusative.  Adjectives  and  pro- 
nouns had  each  of  these  cases  in  the  masculine,  feminine, 


APPENDIX.  245 

and  neuter  gender,  and  each  adjective  had  one  declen- 
sion for  use  with  the  definite  article,  and  another  for 
use  without  it.  In  many  instances,  however,  the  same 
form  was  used  for  several  cases. 

SPECIMEN    OF    ANGLO-SAXON. 
WEST   SAXON  DIALECT. 

[from   an   interpolation   made   by   king   ALFRED   IN   HIS  TRANG.LATION  OF  OROSIUS.^] 

6htere  s^de  his  hlaforde,  ^Ifr^de  cyninge,  j^aet  h^  ealra 
NorSmonna  norSmest  bijde.  H^  cwaeS  f  aet  h^  biide  on  ])km 
lande  norSweardum  wiS  fa  Westsse.  H6  s&de  p^ah  ]:3et  f set 
land  sie  swi6e  lang  norS  |)onan ;  ac  hit  is  eall  w^ste,  bijton  on 
f^awum  st6wum  styccemfelum  wiciaS  Finnas,  on  huntoSe  on 
wintra,  ond  on  sumera  on  fisca(Se  be  j^^re  sfe.  H^  sfede  J/aet 
h^  3et  sumum  cirre  wolde  fandian  hu  longe  [set  land  norSryhte 
l^ge,  oS6e  hwaeSer  jfenig  monn  be  norSan  [fern  w^stenne  biide. 

TRANSLATION    OF    THE    FOREGOING    PASSAGE. 

Ohtere  said  to  his  lord,  King  Alfred,  that  he  dwelt  farthest- 
north  of  all  Northmen.  He  said  that  he  dwelt  in  the  land 
northward  along  the  West  Sea.  He  said,  though,  that  that  land 
extended  far  north  from  there  ;  but  it  is  all  waste,  except  that  in 
a  few  places  here  and  there  Finns  live,  hunting  in  winter  and 
in  summer  fishing,  by  that  sea.  He  said  that  he  on  one 
occasion  wished  to  explore  how  far  that  land  extended  due 
north,  or  whether  any  man  dwelt  north  of  th^  waste. 

Latin  and  French  in  English.  —  By  comparing  the  orig- 
inal passage  in  the  above  illustration  with  modern  Eng- 
lish, it  is  evident  that  our  language  has  undergone  great 
changes  in  the  last  thousand  years.    \i  we  are  acquainted 

1  From  Webster's  "  International  Dictionary,"  p.  xlii. 


246  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

with  French  and  Latin,  we  may  see  in  the  translation 
of  this  passage  that  the  words  printed  in  ItaHcs  resemble 
French  or  Latin  words.  Let  us  now  endeavor  to  trace 
the  events  that  have  brought  about  these  changes. 

INFLUENCE    OF    OTHER    LANGUAGES    ON    THE    ANGLO- 
SAXON. 

Celtic. — We  have  seen  that  Celtic  languages  con- 
tinued to  be  spoken  in  Wales  and  Cornwall,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland.  We  might,  therefore,  expect  to  find  the 
Anglo-Saxons  adopting  many  words  from  the  vocab- 
ulary of  their  neighbors ;  but  the  hostility  between  the 
Saxons  and  the  Celts  precluded  any  extensive  influence 
of  the  languages  upon  one  another.  Some  words  have 
been  taken  from  the  Welsh  and  other  Celtic  dialects, 
but  the  number  of  Celtic  words  in  English  is  very  small. 

Roman  Occupation.  —  It  is  probable  that  at  the  time 
of  the  Saxon  conquest  the  Britons  used  many  Latin 
words,  for  they  had  been  for  centuries  under  Roman 
rule.  Many  Roman  names  of  places  in  England  are 
still  retained.  A  few  other  words  have  come  into  Eng- 
lish from  the  Latin  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain. 

Church  Latin.  —  In  the  year  597,  Augustine  and  a 
company  of  priests  from  Rome  landed  in  Kent.  Other 
missionaries  from  the  church  of  Rome,  and  from  the 
Christian  churches  in  Ireland,  went  to  other  parts  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  by  the  year  681,  the  last  Anglo-Saxon  king- 
dom accepted  Christianity.  The  missionaries  brought 
with  them  the  Latin  services  of  the  church  of  Rome. 
The  language  of  the  monasteries  was  also  Latin ;  and 
as  the  monasteries  were  the  home  of  literature  and  the 
source  of  all  education  in  England,  we  find  Latin  words 


APPENDIX.  247 

entering  the  vocabulary  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  With  the 
changes  from  heathenism  to  Christianity  came  a  host  of 
new  ideas,  the  names  for  which  were  taken  from  the 
Latin  of  the  priests. 

Anglo-Saxon  Literature.  —  It  is  a  question  with 
scholars  whether  any  Anglo-Saxon  literature  was  pro- 
duced before  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  two  poems,  **The  Traveller's 
Song,"  and  "  Deor's  Complaint,"  were  originally  com- 
posed about  A.D.  550.  One  of  the  most  important 
monuments  of  Anglo-Saxon  literature  is  the  poem 
"  Beowulf,"  which  for  a  long  time  was  supposed  to 
have  been  written  before  the  Saxons  came  to  England, 
but  belongs,  in  its  existing  form,  it  is  now  generally 
agreed,  to  the  tenth  century.  Most  of  the  other 
writings  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  religious  poems,  or 
historical  records  called  chronicles. 

Literary  culture  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  began  in 
Northumbria,  and  their  first  literature  was  written  in  the 
dialect  of  the  Angles.  For  a  long  while  Northumbria 
was  the  most  important  literary  center  of  England. 
Later  the  West  Saxons  took  the  lead  in  letters  as  well 
as  in  arms  and  in  government.  King  Alfred,  who 
reigned  from  871  to  900,  was  the  greatest  of  the  West 
Saxon  kings.  He  was  himself  an  author,  and  the  first 
who  wrote  extensively  in  English  prose.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  was  begun  during  his  reign.  Former 
fragmentary  chronicles  were  woven  together  and  filled 
out  down  to  the  reign  of  Alfred,  but  from  that  time  the 
history  is  contemporary,  and  was  continued  by  different 
writers  to  the  year  1 1 54. 

Danish  Conquest.  —  From  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century   for   nearly  two   hundred   years    England    was 


248  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

subject  to  frequent  invasions  from  the  Danes.  The  raids 
of  these  pirates  were  at  first  confined  to  the  east  coast 
of  England.  For  many  years  they  were  kept  under 
control  and  given  a  portion  of  territory,  where  they 
settled  and  lived  under  their  own  laws  and  rules.  The 
land  thus  allotted  to  the  Danes  was  known  as  the  Dane- 
lagh. In  1016  the  Danes  rose  and  defeated  the  English 
in  a  decisive  battle ;  and  after  this  for  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century  England  was  ruled  by  Danish  kings. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  how  much  the  vocabu- 
lary of  our  language  has  been  affected  by  the  Danish 
invasion.  The  number  of  English  words  supposed  to 
be  of  Scandinavian  origin  is  large;  but  Scandinavian 
words  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  Anglo-Saxon  words ; 
and  there  is  not  sufficient  Anglo-Saxon  literature  to 
prove  that  words  appearing  only  after  the  Danish  in- 
vasion were  not  in  the  original  vocabulary  of  Angles, 
Jutes,  or  Saxons,  or  borrowed  before  their  settlement  in 
England.  Many  scholars,  however,  incline  to  the  belief 
that  most  of  these  words  were  introduced  by  the  Danish 
invasion  and  settlement. 

Anglo-Saxon  Period.  —  For  the  first  six  hundred  years 
of  its  existence  in  England  the  foreign  languages  with 
which  the  Anglo-Saxon  had  come  into  contact  had  pro- 
duced but  slight  changes  in  its  vocabulary  and  structure. 
The  period  from  449  to  1066  is  called  the  Anglo-Saxon 
period  of  English  history.  But  English  soil  was  soon 
to  become  the  scene  of  an  invasion  and  conquest  which 
mingled  the  people  with  another  race,  and  their  lan- 
guage with  a  foreign  tongue, 

Norman  French.  —  France,  like  England,  was  at  first 
inhabited  by  Celtic  tribes.  They  were  called  Gauls. 
Roman    conquest    and    occupation    had    civilized    and 


APPENDIX.  249 

Romanized  the  Celts  of  France ;  and  the  language 
spoken  there  was,  as  in  Spain  and  Italy,  Latin  slightly 
modified  by  the  original  speech.  The  Gauls,  like  the 
Britons,  had  been  overcome  by  Teutonic  invasion.  Be- 
fore the  Anglo-Saxons  had  conquered  Britain,  the  Franks 
had  invaded  Gaul  and  settled  in  that  part  of  Western 
Europe  which  from  the  names  of  these  conquerors  has 
ever  since  been  known  as  France,  or  the  country  of  the 
Franks.  Unlike  the  Teutonic  invaders  of  Britain,  the 
Franks  adopted  the  language  and  religion  of  the  Roman- 
ized Celtic  population ;  and  France  continued  to  be  a 
Christian  country  speaking  a  Latin  tongue. 

At  the  time  that  England  was  suffering  from  the  raids 
of  the  Danes,  or  Northmen,  similar  excursions  were 
being  made  by  the  same  nation  against  the  northern 
coast  of  France.  In  912  the  Northmen  under  Rolf  made 
an  inroad  into  France  and  forced  the  French  king, 
Charles  the  Simple,  to  make  them  a  grant  of  lands  in 
the  north  of  his  kingdom.  There  the  Northmen  settled, 
and  their  descendants  have  remained  to  this  day.  Rolf 
accepted  Christianity  and  became  a  vassal  of  the  French 
king.  The  language  of  the  French  prevailed,  and  in 
course  of  time  the  Northmen  adopted  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  French.  Soon  their  name  was  softened 
into  Normans,  and  the  region  they  inhabited  was  known 
as  Normandy. 

Norman  Conquest.  —  In  1066  the  Normans,  under 
William  Duke  of  Normandy,  crossed  the  English  Chan- 
nel from  the  north  coast  of  France ;  and  England  was 
for  a  third  time  the  scene  of  foreign  invasion  and  con- 
quest. William  became  king  of  England,  and  his 
descendants  have  held  the  throne  ever  since.  After 
the  Normans  conquered  England,  they  settled  there  in 


250  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

large  numbers.  The  Saxons  were  not  driven  from  the 
island,  nor  were  they  exterminated.  The  lands  of  the 
Saxon  barons  were  confiscated  and  divided  amongst 
the  Norman  army;  but  the  Saxons  remained  as  tillers 
of  the  soil  and  serfs  of  the  Norman  nobility. 

Two  Languages  in  England.  —  We  might  naturally 
suppose  that  as  the  Normans  had  conquered  the  Saxons, 
the  Norman  language  would  drive  out  the  Saxon,  espe- 
cially since  after  the  Conquest  the  king's  court,  the 
nobility,  and  nearly  all  the  governing  agents  of  the 
king  were  Norman.  The  army  was  composed  mainly 
of  Norman  troops ;  and  Norman  clergy  had  replaced 
the  Saxon  priesthood.  Instruction  in  the  schools  was 
imparted  in  French.  There  was  little  to  stimulate, 
and  much  to  discourage,  the  cultivation  of  the  native 
language.  As  a  result  of  this  exclusion  of  the  Saxons 
from  the  higher  walks  of  life,  and  of  the  consequent 
separation  of  the  two  races,  we  find  that  for  a  long 
period,  viz.,  from  1066  to  1200,  the  two  languages 
existed  side  by  side  without  materially  affecting  each 
other.  During  this  period  very  little  English  literature 
was  produced,  aside  from  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  which 
was  carried  on  with  only  a  few  breaks  in  the  record  to 
the  accession  of  Henry  the  Second,  in  1 1 54.  Most  of  the 
works  produced  on  English  soil  were  written  either  by 
the  clergy  in  Latin  or  by  Norman  writers  in  their  native 
tongue.  Many  books  written  in  Normandy  were  read 
in  England  during  this  period.  In  the  study  of  English 
literature  the  period  from  1066  to  1200  is  called  the 
Anglo-Norman  period.  The  Norman  works  of  this 
period  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  English  language, 
and  the  Saxon  works  are  in  the  Saxon  of  the  previous 
period.     Therefore,  in  tracing  the  development  of  the 


APPENDIX.  251 

English  language,  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English 
period  (including  the  Anglo-Norman,  or  Transition 
period)  may  be  said  to  extend  to  the  year  1200.  The 
next  period  is  called  the  Middle  English  period,  and 
covers  those  years  during  which  the  Anglo-Saxon,  by 
the  adoption  of  French  words  and  by  the  loss  of  its 
inflections,  gradually  changed  its  vocabulary  and  struc- 
ture, and  finally  passed  into  the  modern  English  that  we 
now  speak. 

MIDDLE   ENGLISH  (12OO-1500). 

French  or  Saxon  to  Survive  ?  —  For  some  time  after 
the  Conquest  the  languages  of  the  Normans  and  the 
Saxons  mingled  very  little.  In  1204  the  kings  of 
England  lost  their  possessions  in  Normandy ;  and  this 
loss  brought  about  much  closer  relatione  between  the 
ruHng  classes  and  the  Saxons.  As  a  result,  we  find  the 
Normans  generally  learning  to  speak  the  Saxon  tongue, 
and  native  writers  introducing  into  their  works  such 
Norman  words  as  would  be  readily  understood  by  their 
readers.  The  Normans  made  efforts  to  retain  French 
as  the  literary  language.  But  as  fast  as  French  books 
were  written  they  were  translated,  and  the  translations 
were  read  by  ten  times  as  many  readers  as  the  original 
works.  Gradually  the  Saxon  literature  gained  the 
mastery  over  the  Norman  French,  but  the  language  of 
this  new  literature  is  very  different  from  the  Saxon 
previous  to  the  Conquest. 

Norman  French  absorbed  by  Saxon.  —  Much  has  been 
written  as  to  the  importance  of  the  Norman  element^ 

1  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  French  is  Latin  in  a  slightly 
modified  form,  and  that  the  Norman  French  element  in  the  English 
language  is  really  a  part  of  the  Latin  element. 


252  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

in  English ;  and  the  best  authorities  object  to  speak- 
ing of  the  fusion  of  Norman  French  and  EngHsh.  In 
the  struggle  for  existence  on  English  soil  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  language  succeeded.  The  two  races  mingled  and 
became  one ;  but  the  original  language  has  never  lost  its 
individuality.  It  borrowed  words  from  the  French,  and 
gradually  lost  most  of  its  inflectional  forms ;  but  there 
never  was  a  time  when  there  was  any  question  whether 
the  language  was  French  or  English.  For  these  and 
other  reasons  many  prefer  to  designate  the  language 
before  the  Conquest  as  Old  English,  and  not  as  Anglo- 
Saxon.  The  borrowing  of  French  words  at  first  went 
on  slowly.  In  the  works  produced  in  the  last  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  only  about  twelve  per  cent  of  the 
whole  number  of  words  are  foreign,  in  some  works  only 
four  per  cent ;  but  the  inflections  are  to  a  great  extent 
discarded.  By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
we  find  the  number  of  French  words  greatly  increased ; 
many  inflectional  forms  have  disappeared ;  and  most  of 
the  original  terminations  have  been  leveled  to  the  single 
termination  e. 

Chaucer.  —  The  writings  of  Chaucer,  who  wrote  his 
last  works  about  1390,  can  be  read  without  much  diffi- 
culty by  any  educated  English-speaking  person.  In  the 
following  passage  from  Chaucer's  *'  Canterbury  Tales," 
we  find  many  words  spelled  with  a  final  e  no  longer  used 
in  modern  English,  and  many  final  e's>  now  silent  must 
be  pronounced  in  order  to  preserve  the  meter.  One 
hundred  years  from  Chaucer's  time  we  find  these 
words  spelled  and  pronounced  nearly  as  at  present; 
and  for  this  reason  the  date  of  the  commencement  of 
modern  English  is  generally  placed  at  about  the  year 
1500. 


APPENDIX.  253 

[from  Chaucer's  "  canterbury  tales."] 

Whan  that  the  moneth  in  which  the  world  bigan 
That  highte  March,  whan  God  first  made  man, 
Was  complet,  and  y-passed  were  also, 
Syn  March  bygan,  thritty  dayes  and  tuo, 
Byfel  that  Chauntecleer  in  al  his  pride. 
His  seven  wyves  walkyng  him  by  syde, 
Caste  up  his  eyghen  to  the  brighte  sonne 
That  in  the  signe  of  Taurus  hadde  i-ronne 
Twenty  degrees  and  oon,  and  somewhat  more ; 
He  knew  by  kynde,  and  by  noon  other  lore, 
That  it  was  prime,  and  crew  with  blisful  stevene. 
"  The  Sonne,"  he  sayde,  "  is  clomben  up  on  hevens 
Fourty  degrees  and  oon,  and  more  i-wis. 
Madame  Pertelote,  my  worldes  blis, 
Herkneth  these  blisful  briddes  how  they  synge. 
And  seth  the  fressche  floures  how  they  springe ; 
Ful  is  myn  hert  of  revel  and  solaas/' 
But  sodeinly  him  fel  a  sorweful  caas ; 
For  evere  the  latter  ende  of  joye  is  wo. 
God  wot  that  worldly  joye  is  soone  ago. 

MODERN    ENGLISH. 

Modern  English  dates  from  Caxton,  who  brought  the 
printing  press  to  England  about  the  year  1475.  By  this 
time  the  Norman  and  English  races  were  blended  into 
one,  and  no  further  change  could  come  from  the  influence 
of  one  race  upon  the  other.  The  English  that  Caxton 
printed  was  the  same  language  as  that  which  we  speak 
to-day.  All  the  inflections  had  been  lost ;  and  as  far 
as  the  adoption  of  French  words  was  concerned,  the 
vocabulary  definitely  determined.  Many  words  of  Cax- 
ton's  time  have  since  become  obsolete,  and  many  words 
have  since  been  introduced.  For  though  there  has  been 
no  national  immigration  to  England  since  the  day  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  there  have  been  many  influences 


254  SCHOOL   ENGLISH. 

at  work  which  have  introduced  new  words  into  the 
English  vocabulary.  Latin  continued  to  be  the  language 
of  the  church  of  Rome  and  of  the  courts  of  law ;  and 
for  many  years  it  seemed  as  if  Latin  were  destined  to 
become  the  literary  language  of  England.  Even  as  late 
as  1600  we  find  authors  translating  their  works  from 
English  into  Latin  in  order  that  they  might  survive  the 
longer  for  being  written  in  the  "  universal  tongue."  Thus, 
besides  the  Latin  which  has  come  into  English  with  the 
Norman  French,  many  words  have  come  directly  from 
the  Latin  itself  by  reason  of  its  long  use  in  law,  by  the 
church,  and  by  men  of  letters.  The  terminology  of 
science  is  derived  largely  from  the  Greek,  and  commerce 
has  introduced  words  from  nearly  every  language  on  the 
globe.  Each  new  edition  of  the  dictionary  contains 
words  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  editions  previously 
published.  One  hundred  years  from  now  there  will  be 
many  words  in  the  English  language  that  our  generation 
will  never  hear  nor  see. 

SPECIMENS    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.^ 

The  following  extracts  from  various  English  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible  will  best  exhibit  how  the  language 
has  changed  in  the  course  of  time :  — 

L      WICLIF    VERSION— 1380. 

Nile  3e  tresoure  to  3ou  tresouris  in  erthe  :  where  rust  and 
moii3te  distrieth,  and  where  theues  deluen  out  and  stelen^  but 
gadir  to  3ou  tresouris  in  heuene  f  where  nether  rust  ne  mou3te 
distrieth,  and  where  theues  deluen  not  out  ne  stelen  for  where 
thi  tresoure  is  :  there  also  thin  herte  is 

1  From  the  English  Hexapla,  London,  1841. 


APPENDIX.  255 

II.  TYNDALE    VERSION  —  1534. 

Se  that  ye  gaddre  you  not  treasure  vpon  the  erth  where 
rust  and  mothes  corrupte^  and  where  theves  breake  through 
and  steale.  But  gaddre  ye  treasure  togeder  in  heven  where 
nether  rust  nor  mothes  corrupte^  and  where  theves  nether 
breake  vp  nor  yet  steale.  For  where  soever  youre  treasure  y^ 
there  will  youre  hertes  be  also. 

III.  RHEIMS    VERSION  — 1582. 

Heape  not  vp  to  your  selues  treasures  on  the  earth  :  where 
the  rust  &  mothe  do  corrupt,  &  where  theeues  digge  through 
&  steale. 

But  heape  vp  to  your  selues  treasures  in  heauen  :  where 
neither  the  rust  nor  mothe  doth  corrupt,  and  where  theeues 
do  not  digge  through  nor  steale. 

For  where  thy  treasure  is,  there  is  thy  hart  also. 

IV.      AUTHORIZED    VERSION— 161 1. 
(Original  spelling  retained.) 

Lay  not  vp  for  your  selues  treasures  vpon  earth,  where  moth 
and  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where  theeues  breake  thorow,  and 
steale.  But  lay  vp  for  your  selues  treasures  in  heauen,  where 
neither  moth  nor  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where  theeues  doe  not 
breake  thorow  nor  steale. 

For  where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. 


256  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

II. 

GOLDSMITH. 
THE  DESERTED   VILLAGE.^ 

Sweet  Auburn  !  loveliest  village  of  the  plain  ; 

Where  health  and  plenty  cheered  the  laboring  swaiac 

Where  smiling  spring  its  earliest  visit  paid, 

And  parting  summer's  lingering  blooms  delayed  : 

Dear  lovely  bowers  of  innocence  and  ease, 

Seats  of  my  youth,  when  every  sport  could  please, 

How  often  have  I  loitered  o'er  thy  green, 

Where  humble  happiness  endeared  each  scene ! 

How  often  have  I  paused  on  every  charm, 

The  sheltered  cot,  the  cultivated  farm, 

The  never-failing  brook,  the  busy  mill. 

The  decent  church  that  topt  the  neighboring  hill, 

The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade, 

For  talking  age  and  whispering  lovers  made ! 

How  often  have  I  blest  the  coming  day. 

When  toil  remitting  lent  its  turn  to  play. 

And  all  the  village  train,  from  labor  free. 

Led  up  their  sports  beneath  the  spreading  tree, 

While  many  a  pastime  circled  in  the  shade, 

The  young  contending  as  the  old  surveyed ; 

And  many  a  gambol  frolicked  o'er  the  ground, 

And  sleights  of  art  and  feats  of  strength  went  round 

And  still,  as  each  repeated  pleasure  tired, 

Succeeding  sports  the  mirthful  band  inspired ; 

The  dancing  pair  that  simply  sought  renown 

By  holding  out  to  tire  each  other  down  ; 

The  swain  mir.trustless  of  his  smutted  face. 

While  secret  laughter  tittered  round  the  place ; 

The  bashful  virgin's  sidelong  looks  of  love, 

The  matron's  glance  that  would  those  looks  reprove. 

These  were  thy  charms,  sweet  village  !  sports  like  these, 

^  See  footnote,  p.  12. 


APPENDIX.  257 

With  sweet  succession,  taught  even  toil  to  please : 
These  round  thy  bowers  their  cheerful  influence  shed : 
These  were  thy  charms  —  but  all  these  charms  are  fled. 

Sweet  smiling  village,  loveliest  of  the  lawn, 
Thy  sports  are  fled,  and  all  thy  charms  withdrawn ; 
Amidst  thy  bowers  the  tyrant's  hand  is  seen, 
And  desolation  saddens  all  thy  green : 
One  only  master  grasps  the  whole  domain. 
And  half  a  tillage  stints  thy  smiling  plain. 
No  more  thy  glassy  brook  reflects  the  day, 
But,  choked  with  sedges,  works  its  weedy  way ; 
Along  thy  glades,  a  solitary  guest, 
The  hollow  sounding  bittern  guards  its  nest ; 
Amidst  thy  desert  walks  the  lapwing  flies. 
And  tires  their  echoes  with  unvaried  cries ; 
Sunk  are  thy  bowers  in  shapeless  ruin  all, 
And  the  long  grass  overtops  the  moldering  wall ; 
And  trembling,  shrinking  from  the  spoiler's  hand. 
Far,  far  away  thy  children  leave  the  land.    • 

111  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a  prey. 
Where  wealth  accumulates,  and  men  decay  : 
Princes  and  lords  may  flourish,  or  may  fade ; 
A  breath  can  make  them,  as  a  breath  has  made : 
But  a  bold  peasantry,  their  country's  pride. 
When  once  destroyed,  can  never  be  supplied. 

A  time  there  was,  ere  England's  griefs  began, 
When  every  rood  of  ground  maintained  its  man ; 
For  him  light  labor  spread  her  wholesome  store. 
Just  gave  what  life  required,  but  gave  no  more  : 
His  best  companions,  innocence  and  health  ; 
And  his  best  riches,  ignorance  of  wealth. 

But  times  are  altered ;  trade's  unfeeling  train 
Usurp  the  land  and  dispossess  the  swain ; 
Along  the  lawn,  where  scattered  hamlets  rose, 
Unwieldy  wealth  and  cumbrous  pomp  repose. 
And  every  want  to  opulence  allied, 
And  every  pang  that  folly  pays  to  pride. 
These  gentle  hours  that  plenty  bade  to  bloom, 
Those  calm  desires  that  asked  but  little  room, 
scH.  ENG. — 17 


258  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

Those  healthful  sports  that  graced  the  peaceful  scene, 
Lived  in  each  look,  and  brightened  all  the  green ; 
These,  far  departing,  seek  a  kinder  shore, 
And  rural  mirth  and  manners  are  no  more. 

Sweet  Auburn !  parent  of  the  blissful  hour, 
Thy  glades  forlorn  confess  the  tyrant's  power. 
Here,  as  I  take  my  solitary  rounds 
Amidst  thy  tangling  walks  and  ruined  grounds. 
And,  many  a  year  elapsed,  return  to  view 
Where  once  the  cottage  stood,  the  hawthorn  grew, 
Remembrance  wakes  with  all  her  busy  train. 
Swells  at  my  breast,  and  turns  the  past  to  pain. 

In  all  my  wanderings  round  this  world  of  care. 
In  all  my  griefs  —  and  God  has  given  my  share  — 
I  still  had  hopes  my  latest  hours  to  crown, 
Amidst  these  humble  bowers  to  lay  me  down ; 
To  husband  out  life's  taper  at  the  close, 
And  keep  the  flame  from  wasting  by  repose : 
I  still  had  hopes,  for  pride  attends  us  still, 
Amidst  the  swains  to  show  my  book-learned  skill, 
Around  my  fire  an  evening  group  to  draw. 
And  tell  of  all  I  felt,  and  all  I  saw ; 
And,  as  an  hare  whom  hounds  and  horns  pursue 
Pants  to  the  place  from  whence  at  first  she  flew, 
I  still  had  hopes,  my  long  vexations  past, 
Here  to  return  —  and  die  at  home  at  last. 

O  blest  retirement,  friend  to  life's  decline, 
Retreats  from  care,  that  never  must  be  mine, 
How  happy  he  who  crowns  in  shades  like  these 
A  youth  of  labor  with  an  age  of  ease  ; 
Who  quits  a  world  where  strong  temptations  try, 
And,  since  'tis  hard  to  combat,  learns  to  fly ! 
For  him  no  wretches,  born  to  work  and  weep. 
Explore  the  mine,  or  tempt  the  dangerous  deep ; 
No  surly  porter  stands  in  guilty  state. 
To  spurn  imploring  famine  from  the  gate ; 
But  on  he  moves  to  meet  his  latter  end. 
Angels  around  befriending  virtue's  friend  ; 
Bends  to  the  grave  with  unperceived  decay, 
While  resignation  gently  slopes  the  way ; 


APPENDIX.  259 

And,  all  his  prospects  brightening  to  the  last, 
His  heaven  commences  ere  the  world  be  past! 

Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft  at  evening's  close 
Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose. 
There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milkmaid  sung, 
The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young. 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool. 
The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school, 
The  watchdog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind, 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind ;  — 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade, 
And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 
But  now  the  sounds  of  population  fail, 
No  cheerful  murmurs  fluctuate  in  the  gale. 
No  busy  steps  the  grass-grown  footway  tread, 
For  all  the  bloomy  flush  of  life  is  fled. 
All  but  yon  widowed,  solitary  thing, 
That  feebly  bends  beside  the  plashy  spring : 
She,  wretched  matron,  forced  in  age,  for  bread, 
To  strip  the  brook  with  mantling  cresses  spread, 
To  pick  her  wintry  fagot  from  the  thorn. 
To  seek  her  nightly  shed,  and  weep  till  morn ; 
She  only  left  of  all  the  harmless  train. 
The  sad  historian  of  the  pensive  plain. 

Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled. 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild ; 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose. 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. 
A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 
And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year ; 
Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race. 
Nor  e'er  had  changed,  nor  wished  to  change  his  place ; 
Unpracticed  he  to  fawn,  or  seek  for  power, 
By  doctrines  fashioned  to  the  varying  hour ; 
Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learned  to  prize, 
More  skilled  to  raise  the  wretched  than  to  rise. 
His  house  was  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train  , 
He  chid  their  wanderings  but  relieved  their  pain : 


26o  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  long  remembered  beggar  was  his  guest, 
Whose  beard  descending  swept  his  aged  breast ; 
The  ruined  spendthrift,  now  no  longer  proud. 
Claimed  kindred  there,  and  had  his  claims  allowed ; 
The  broken  soldier,  kindly  bade  to  stay, 
Sat  by  his  fire,  and  talked  the  night  away. 
Wept  o'er  his  wounds  or  tales  of  sorrow  done. 
Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were  won. 
Pleased  with  his  guests,  the  good  man  learned  to  glow, 
And  quite  forgot  their  vices  in  their  woe ; 
Careless  their  merits  or  their  faults  to  scan. 
His  pity  gave  ere  charity  began. 

Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride, 
And  e'en  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side ; 
But  in  his  duty  prompt  at  every  call. 
He  watched  and  wept,  he  prayed  and  felt  for  all ; 
And,  as  a  bird  each  fond  endearment  tries 
To  tempt  its  new-fledged  offspring  to  the  skies, 
He  tried  each  art,  reproved  each  dull  delay. 
Allured  to  brighter  worlds,  and  led  the  way. 

Beside  the  bed  where  parting  life  was  laid. 
And  sorrow,  guilt,  and  pain  by  turns  dismayed. 
The  reverend  champion  stood.     At  his  control 
Despair  and  anguish  fled  the  struggling  soul ; 
Comfort  came  down  the  trembling  wretch  to  raise, 
And  his  last  faltering  accents  whispered  praise. 

At  church,  with  meek  and  unaflected  grace. 
His  looks  adorned  the  venerable  place ; 
Truth  from  his  lips  prevailed  with  double  sway, 
And  fools,  who  came  to  scoif,  remained  to  pray. 
The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man, 
With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran ; 
Even  children  followed  with  endearing  wile. 
And  plucked  his  gown  to  share  the  good  man's  smile. 
His  ready  smile  a  parent's  warmth  exprest ; 
Their  welfare  pleased  him,  and  their  cares  distrest : 
To  them  his  heart,  his  love,  his  griefs  were  given, 
But  all  his  serious  thoughts  had  rest  in  heaven. 
As  some  tall  cliff"  that  lifts  its  awful  form. 
Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm, 


APPENDIX.  261 

Tho'  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread, 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head. 

Beside  yon  straggling  fence  that  skirts  the  way, 
With  blossom'd  furze  unprofitably  gay, 
There,  in  his  noisy  mansion,  skilFd  to  rule. 
The  village  master  taught  his  little  school. 
A  man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view ; 
I  knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew : 
Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learned  to  trace 
The  day's  disasters  in  his  morning  face ; 
Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 
At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a  joke  had  he  ; 
Full  well  the  busy  whisper  circling  round 
Conveyed  the  dismal  tidings  when  he  frowned. 
Yet  he  was  kind,  or,  if  severe  in  aught. 
The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in  fault ; 
The  village  all  declared  how  much  he  knew : 
'Twas  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too ; 
Lands  he  could  measure,  terms  and  tides  presage, 
And  even  the  story  ran  that  he  could  gauge  : 
In  arguing,  too,  the  parson  owned  his  skill. 
For,  even  tho'  vanquished,  he  could  argue  still ; 
While  words  of  learned  length  and  thundering  sound 
Amazed  the  gazing  rustics  ranged  around  ; 
And  still  they  gazed,  and  still  the  wonder  grew. 
That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew. 

But  past  is  all  his  fame.     The  very  spot 
Where  many  a  time  he  triumphed  is  forgot. 
Near  yonder  thorn,  that  lifts  its  head  on  high. 
Where  once  the  sign-post  caught  the  passing  eye. 
Low  lies  that  house  where  nut-brown  draughts  inspired, 
Where  gray-beard  mirth  and  smiling  toil  retired. 
Where  village  statesmen  talked  with  looks  profound. 
And  news  much  older  than  their  ale  went  round. 
Imagination  fondly  stoops  to  trace 
The  parlor  splendors  of  that  festive  place: 
The  whitewashed  wall,  the  nicely  sanded  floor. 
The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door ; 
The  chest  contrived  a  double  debt  to  pay, 
A  bed  by  night,  a  chest  of  drawers  by  day ; 


262  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

The  pictures  placed  for  ornament  and  use, 
The  twelve  good  rules,  the  royal  game  of  goose ; 
The  hearth,  except  when  winter  chilPd  the  day, 
With  aspen  boughs  and  flowers  and  fennel  gay  ; 
While  broken  teacups,  wisely  kept  for  show, 
Ranged  o'er  the  chimney,  glistened  in  a  row. 

Vain  transitory  splendors  !  could  not  all 
Reprieve  the  tottering  mansion  from  its  fall? 
Obscure  it  sinks,  nor  shall  it  more  impart 
An  hour's  importance  to  the  poor  man's  heart. 
Thither  no  more  the  peasant  shall  repair 
To  sweet  oblivion  of  his  daily  care  ; 
No  more  the  farmer's  news,  the  barber's  tale. 
No  more  the  woodman's  ballad  shall  prevail ; 
No  more  the  smith  his  dusky  brow  shall  clear, 
Relax  his  ponderous  strength,  and  lean  to  hear ; 
The  host  himself  no  longer  shall  be  found 
Careful  to  see  the  mantling  bliss  go  round ; 
Nor  the  coy  maid,  half  willing  to  be  prest, 
Shall  kiss  the  cup  to  pass  it  to  the  rest. 

Yes  !  let  the  rich  deride,  the  proud  disdain, 
These  simple  blessings  of  the  lowly  train ; 
To  me  more  dear,  congenial  to  my  heart. 
One  native  charm,  than  all  the  gloss  of  art ; 
Spontaneous  joys,  where  Nature  has  its  play. 
The  soul  adopts,  and  owns  their  first-born  sway ; 
Lightly  they  frolic  o'er  the  vacant  mind, 
Unenvied,  unmolested,  unconfined. 
But  the  long  pomp,  the  midnight  masquerade. 
With  all  the  freaks  of  wanton  wealth  arrayed  — 
In  these,  ere  triflers  half  their  wish  obtain. 
The  toiling  pleasure  sickens  into  pain ; 
And,  e'en  while  fashion's  brightest  arts  decoy, 
The  heart  distrusting  asks  if  this  be  joy. 

Ye  friends  to  truth,  ye  statesmen  who  survey 
The  rich  man's  joys  increase,  the  poor's  decay, 
'Tis  yours  to  judge,  how  wide  the  limits  stant 
Between  a  splendid  and  a  happy  land. 
Proud  swells  the  tide  with  loads  of  freighted  ore, 
And  shouting  Folly  hails  them  from  her  shore ; 


APPENDIX.  263 

Hoards  e'en  beyond  the  miser's  wish  abound, 

And  rich  men  flock  from  all  the  world  around. 

Yet  count  our  gains.     This  wealth  is  but  a  name 

That  leaves  our  useful  products  still  the  same. 

Not  so  the  loss.     The  man  of  wealth  and  pride 

Takes  up  a  space  that  many  poor  supplied  ; 

Space  for  his  lake,  his  park's  extended  bounds, 

Space  for  his  horses,  equipage,  and  hounds  : 

The  robe  that  wraps  his  limbs  in  silken  sloth 

Has  robbed  the  neighboring  fields  of  half  their  growth ; 

His  seat,  where  solitary  sports  are  seen, 

Indignant  spurns  the  cottage  from  the  green : 

Around  the  world  each  needful  product  flies, 

For  all  the  luxuries  the  world  supplies ; 

While  thus  the  land  adorned  for  pleasure  all 

In  barren  splendor  feebly  waits  the  fall. 

As  some  fair  female  unadorned  and  plain, 
Secure  to  please  while  youth  confirms  her  reign. 
Slights  every  borrowed  charm  that  dress  supplies, 
Nor  shares  with  art  the  triumph  of  her  eyes  ; 
But  when  those  charms  are  past,  for  charms  are  frail, 
When  time  advances,  and  when  lovers  fail, 
She  then  shines  forth,  solicitous  to  bless. 
In  all  the  glaring  impotence  of  dress. 
Thus  fares  the  land  by  luxury  betrayed : 
In  nature's  simplest  charms  at  first  arrayed, 
But  verging  to  decline,  its  splendors  rise ; 
Its  vistas  strike,  its  palaces  surprise: 
While,  scourged  by  famine  from  the  smiling  land. 
The  mournful  peasant  leads  his  humble  band. 
And  while  he  sinks,  without  one  arm  to  save. 
The  country  blooms  —  a  garden  and  a  grave. 

Where  then,  ah!  where,  shall  poverty  reside, 
•  To  'scape  the  pressure  of  contiguous  pride? 
If  to  some  common's  fenceless  limits  strayed 
He  drives  his  flock  to  pick  the  scanty  blade. 
Those  fenceless  fields  the  sons  of  wealth  divide, 
And  even  the  bare-worn  common  is  denied. 

If  to  the  city  sped  —  what  waits  him  there  ? 
To  see  profusion  that  he  must  not  share ; 


254  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

To  see  ten  thousand  baneful  arts  combined 

To  pamper  luxury,  and  thin  mankind ; 

To  see  those  joys  the  sons  of  pleasure  know 

Extorted  from  his  fellow-creature's  woe. 

Here  while  the  courtier  glitters  in  brocade, 

There  the  pale  artist  plies  the  sickly  trade ; 

Here  while  the  proud  their  long-drawn  pomps  display, 

There  the  black  gibbet  glooms  beside  the  way. 

The  dome  where  pleasure  holds  her  midnight  reign 

Here,  richly  deckt,  admits  the  gorgeous  train : 

Tumultuous  grandeur  crowds  the  blazing  square, 

The  rattling  chariots  clash,  the  torches  glare. 

Sure  scenes  like  these  no  troubles  e'er  annoy  ! 

Sure  these  denote  one  universal  joy  ! 

Are  these  thy  serious  thoughts  ?  —  Ah,  turn  thine  eyes 

Where  the  poor  houseless  shivering  female  lies. 

She  once,  perhaps,  in  village  plenty  blest, 

Has  wept  at  tales  of  innocence  distrest ; 

Her  modest  looks  the  cottage  might  adorn, 

Sweet  as  the  primrose  peeps  beneath  the  thorn : 

Now  lost  to  all ;  her  friends,  her  virtue  fled, 

Near  her  betrayer's  door  she  lays  her  head. 

And,  pinch'd  with  cold,  and  shrinking  from  the  shower, 

With  heavy  heart  deplores  that  luckless  hour, 

When  idly  first,  ambitious  of  the  town. 

She  left  her  wheel  and  robes  of  country  brown. 

Do  thine,  sweet  Auburn,  —  thine,  the  loveliest  train,  — 
Do  thy  fair  tribes  participate  her  pain  ? 
Even  now,  perhaps,  by  cold  and  hunger  led. 
At  proud  men's  doors  they  ask  a  little  bread  ! 

Ah,  no  !     To  distant  climes,  a  dreary  scene, 
Where  half  the  convex  world  intrudes  between. 
Through  torrid  tracks  with  fainting  steps  they  go, 
Where  wild  Altama  murmurs  to  their  woe. 
Far  different  there  from  all  that  charm'd  before 
The  various  terrors  of  that  horrid  shore ; 
Those  blazing  suns  that  dart  a  downward  ray, 
And  fiercely  shed  intolerable  day  ; 
Those  matted  woods,  where  birds  forget  to  sing, 
But  silent  bats  in  drowsy  clusters  cling ; 


APPENDIX.  265 

Those  poisonous  fields  with  rank  luxuriance  crowned, 
Where  the  dark  scorpion  gathers  death  around ; 
Where  at  each  step  the  stranger  fears  to  wake 
The  rattling  terrors  of  the  vengeful  snake  ; 
Where  crouching  tigers  wait  their  hapless  prey, 
And  savage  men  more  murderous  still  than  they ; 
While  oft  in  whirls  the  mad  tornado  flies, 
Mingling  the  ravaged  landscape  with  the  skies. 
Far  different  these  from  every  former  scene, 
The  cooling  brook,  the  grassy-vested  green, 
The  breezy  covert  of  the  warbling  grove, 
That  only  sheltered  thefts  of  harmless  love. 

Good  Heaven!  what  sorrows  gloom'd  that  parting  day, 
That  called  them  from  their  native  walks  away ; 
When  the  poor  exiles,  every  pleasure  past, 
Hung  round  the  bowers,  and  fondly  looked  their  last 
And  took  a  long  farewell,  and  wished  in  vain 
For  seats  like  these  beyond  the  western  main, 
And  shuddering  still  to  face  the  distant  deep. 
Returned  and  wept,  and  still  returned  to  weep. 
The  good  old  sire  the  first  prepared  to  go 
To  new-found  worlds,  and  wept  for  others'  woe ; 
But  for  himself,  in  conscious  virtue  brave. 
He  only  wished  for  worlds  beyond  the  grave. 
His  lovely  daughter,  lovelier  in  her  tears. 
The  fond  companion  of  his  helpless  years, 
Silent  went  next,  neglectful  of  her  charms, 
And  left  a  lover's  for  a  father's  arms. 
With  louder  plaints  the  mother  spoke  her  woes, 
And  bless'd  the  cot  where  every  pleasure  rose. 
And  kiss'd  her  thoughtless  babes  with  many  a  tear, 
And  clasp'd  them  close,  in  sorrow  doubly  dear, 
Whilst  her  fond  husband  strove  to  lend  relief 
In  all  the  silent  manliness  of  grief. 

O  Luxury!  thou  curst  by  Heaven's  decree, 
How  ill  exchanged  are  things  like  these  for  thee 
How  do  thy  potions,  with  insidious  joy. 
Diffuse  their  pleasure  only  to  destroy ! 
Kingdoms  by  thee,  to  sickly  greatness  grown, 
Boast  of  a  florid  vigor  not  their  own. 


266  SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 

At  every  draught  more  large  and  large  they  grow, 
A  bloated  mass  of  rank  unwieldy  woe ; 
Till  sapped  their  strength,  and  every  part  unsound, 
Down,  down  they  sink,  and  spread  a  ruin  round. 

Even  now  the  devastation  is  begun, 
And  half  the  business  of  destruction  done  ; 
Even  now,  methinks,  as  pondering  here  I  stand, 
I  see  the  rural  virtues  leave  the  land. 
Down  where  yon  anchoring  vessel  spreads  the  sail, 
That. idly  waiting  flaps  with  every  gale. 
Downward  they  move,  a  melancholy  band. 
Pass  from  the  shore,  and  darken  all  the  strand. 
Contented  toil,  and  hospitable  care, 
And  kind  connubial  tenderness,  are  there ; 
And  piety  with  wishes  placed  above. 
And  steady  loyalty,  and  faithful  love. 
And  thou,  sweet  poetry,  thou  loveliest  maid, 
Still  first  to  fly  where  sensual  joys  invade ; 
Unfit  in  these  degenerate  times  of  shame 
To  catch  the  heart,  or  strike  for  honest  fame ; 
Dear  charming  nymph,  neglected  and  decried. 
My  shame  in  crowds,  my  solitary  pride ; 
Thou  source  of  all  my  bliss,  and  all  my  woe, 
That  found'st  me  poor  at  first,  and  keep'st  me  so ; 
Thou  guide  by  which  the  nobler  arts  excel, 
Thou  nurse  of  every  virtue,  fare  thee  well! 
Farewell,  and  Oh  !  where'er  thy  voice  be  tried, 
On  Torno's  cliffs,  or  Pambamarca's  side, 
Whether  where  equinoctial  fervors  glow. 
Or  winter  wraps  the  polar  world  in  snow. 
Still  let  thy  voice,  prevailing  over  time. 
Redress  the  rigors  of  the  inclement  clime ; 
Aid  slighted  truth  with  thy  persuasive  strain ; 
Teach  erring  man  to  spurn  the  rage  of  gain ; 
Teach  him,  that  states  of  native  strength  possest, 
Tho'  very  poor,  may  still  be  very  blest ; 
That  trade's  proud  empire  hastes  to  swift  decay. 
As  ocean  sweeps  the  labored  mole  away ; 
While  self-dependent  power  can  time  defy, 
As  rocks  resist  the  billows  and  the  sky. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

A 66 

Abstract i88 

Address i66 

Adjectives 63-65 

unnecessary    94 

Adverbs 65 

Agricola 241 

Alchemy 31 

Alembic 31 

Alfred,  King 247 

Algebra 31 


All 


67 


Allegory 124 

Allied  words 23 

Altruism 14 

Ambiguity 79 

An 


66 

Analysis 52 

Angles 240 

Anglo-Norman  period 257 

Anglo-Saxon 243 

derivatives 26 

element  in  English 25 

foundation  of  English 244 

inflections 244 

literature 247 

period 249 

relation  of,  to  Norman-French  251 

specimen  of 245 

strength  in 95 

Antecedent 19 

Antecedent 78 

Anti-climax 98 

Antithesis loi 

Any 67 


PAGE 

Anybody 57 

Any  one 57 

Apostrophe,  figure  of  speech 132 

in  possessive  case 55,  234 

Argument 212 

chain  of 217 

Armadillo 31 

Article 66 

Artificial  methods 209 

Aryan  languages 22 

Ashame 14 

Ashby .> 30 

Augustine 246 

Authority  for  use  of  words '. .  13 

Auxiliaries 45,  62 

Axis 51 

Ballast 31 

Bamboo 31 

Bandanna 31 

Basis 51 

Basket 30 

Beef 43 

Benison 29 

"  Beowulf" 247 

Bernicia 243 

Biography 19 

Blotting  paper 162 

Body 43 

Books,  essay  subjects  from 208 

Boom 31 

Both 67 

Bow 30 

Boy 44 

Brackets 232 


267 


268 


SCHOOL   ENGLISH 


PAGE 

Bravado 31 

Britons 241 

Brogue 30 

Brother 23 

Bulldoze 14 

Bust 31 

But 68 

-by 30 

Caitiff 29 

Calf 43 

Can 45.  62 

Capitals 234-236 

in  letters 169 

Caprice,  capricious 32 

Carefulness 161,  210 

Carelessness 17 

Cartoon 31 

Celtic  element 30 

languages 246 

Celts 241 

Certain 45 

Chain  of  argument 217 

Change 28 

Change  of  subject 81 

Changes  in  meaning  of  words ....     20 

Chant 28 

Charles  the  Simple 249 

Chaucer 253 

Choice  of  words 95-97 

Choosing  a  subject 204 

Chronicles 247 

Chrysalis 52 

Church  Latin 246 

Clan 30 

Clauses,  punctuation  of 224 

Clearness 75-91 

from  figures  of  speech 120,  154 

Climax  98 

Cognate  words 23 

Coin 28 

Coined  words 36 

Colon 219,  229 

Comma 219,  222-228 

Commerce 254 


PAGE 

Common  ground 215 

Comparative  degree 63 

Compare 40 

Complex  sentence 221 

Complimentary  close 166,  167 

Composition 159-239 

difficulties  in 159,  175 

exercises  in 10 

Compound  sentence 221 

punctuation  of 225,  228 

Conclusion 210,  216 

Condensation 188 

Conjunctions 69 

Contrast 134 

Conversion  of  Britain 246 

Copy  of  letters 172 

Cornish 243 

Corpse 43 

Correction  of  errors 10 

in  construction 50-74 

in  use  of  words 35-49 

Crank , 14 

Crisis 51 

Danish  Conquest 247 

Dash 231 

Debate 212-217 

Declarative  sentences 220 

Definitions 17-19 

Deira 243 

"  Deor's  Complaint " 247 

Depbt 31 

Derivation 16,  32 

Derived  words 23 

Description 192-201 

Devil 28 

Diacritical  marks 15 

Diaresis 52 

Diction 35 

Dictionary 13 

information  in 37 

Difficulties  in  composition  work. .   159 

Direction 166,  168 

Discover 39 

Domesticated  words 51 


INDEX. 


269 


PAGE 

Each 57 

E^st  Anglia 243 

Effluvium 51 

Either 57.  67 

Elements  of  English  language 23 

Ellipsis 227 

English,  classics 12 

language,  elements  of 23 

language,  history  of 240 

middle 251 

modern 253 

old 251,  252 

transition 251 

words 13-34 

Epigram 137 

Errors.     See  Correction  of  Errors. 

in  the  use  of  figures 152 

Essays 203-211 

Essay  writing,  necessary 175 

Essex 243 

Etymology 19-23 

Etymology 30 

Everybody 57 

Exclamation  point 219,  231 

Exclamatory  sentences 102,  221 

Expire 19 

Extracts,  exercises  from 175-191 

Fail 28 

Famine 28 

Farther 44 

Fashion 29 

Figures  of  speech 1 19-15 1 

errors  in 152-157 

trite 155 

First 67 

Force 91-103 

in  figures  of  speech 120,  154 

Foreign  languages,  study  of 31 

words 38 

words,  plural  of 51 

Former 67 

Frail 29 

Franks 249 

Fraternal 23 


PAGE 

Frigu 240 

Further 44 

Gaelic ar^ 

Galleon 31 

Gathering  information 201/ 

Gauls 248 

Genius 51 

Genus 5I 

Germanic  group 240 

Glen 30 

G  )od  style 75 

use 13 

Grammar  and  punctuation 220 

and  rhetoric 50 

twenty  rules  of 51 

Grammatical  terms 220 

Greek  element 29 

words  in  English 254 

words  in  Latin 29 

Grime 30 

Hardly 68 

Harmony 91-106 

Heading 166 

History,  exercises  from 189 

Honesty  in  work 211 

Hyperbole 133 

Hyphen 233 

Hypothesis 52 

Imperative  sentences 221 

Improprieties 39 

Indefinite  pronouns 67 

Indo-European  language 21 

Infinitive  mood 61 

Information,  for  essays 176 

gathering 206 

Ink 162 

Interrogation  point 219,  230 

Interrogative  sentences 102,  220 

Introduction 210 

Invent 39 

Inversion 101 

Irony 134 


270 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


PAGE 

Jaspar 31 

Julius  Caesar 241 

Jutes 240 

Kent 243 

King  Alfred 247 

Lad 30,  44 

Lasso 31 

Last 67 

Latin  element 27 

words 245,  251 

Latter 67 

Letter  writing 163-174 

Like 69 

Logic 213 

Long  sentences 50 

words 95 

Loose  sentence 99 

Lunatic 16 

Luxuriously 39 

Major  premise 216 

Mango 31 

Manx 243 

Many  a  one 57 

Marry 28 

Maxifnum 52 

May 45,  162 

Mercia 243 

Metamorphosis 52 

Metaphor 122 

Metaphors,  mixed 154 

worn  out 155 

Method  employed 10 

Metonymy 130 

Middle  English 251 

Mile 27 

Milton's  vocabulary 24 

Mininmm 52 

Minor  premise 216 

Mint  28 

Miscellaneous  element 30 

Misrepresentation    214 

Modern  English 253 


Modifiers 'j'j 

Monosyllables 96 

• 43 


Mutton 


Narration 201 

Naturalness 159 

Neatness 161 

Nebula   52 

Neither 57,  67 

None 57,  67 

Norman  Conquest 249 

Normandy 249 

Norman-French 248 

in  English    28 

Normans  in  England  250 

Norse  element 30 

Northmen   249 

Northumbria 243 

literature  of 247 

Oasis 52 

Object,  rule  for 54 

Observation,  power  of 192 

Old  English 251,  252 

Omission  of  words 79 

One  57,  67 

Only   68,  77 

Order  of  words 98 

Originality 152 

Orn 14 

Outline  208 

Ox 43 

Parables 128 

Paragraph 107,  234 

Parentheses 232 

Parenthesis    .'.     52 

Parenthetical  clauses 81 

Pauses 218 

Perceive  28 

Period 219,  230 

Periodic  sentence  (period) 99 

Personification 128 

Phenomenon 52 

Philology ax 


INDEX. 


27J 


PAGE 

Philosophy  30 

Phrases 221 

punctuation  of 224 

Picts    242 

Pleasure  in  work 204 

Polite 32 

Poor 29 

Pork 43 

Port 16 

Possessive  case 55>  S6 

Potato 31 

Pound 28 

Precision   41-47 

Predicate,  case  of 53 

definition  of 220 

Prepositions   40,  68 

Prestige 31 

Prevent 20 

Priest 28 

Pronouns 57 

position  of 78 

possessive  case  of 55 

Pronunciation 15 

Propriety 39-41 

Punch 31 

Punctuation 218-234 

clearness  from 78 

of  letters 166-169 

Purists    36 

Purity 35-39 

Quotation  marks 232 

Quotations,  punctuation  of 226,  229 

Quoting   211 

Ranch 31 

Rank  of  punctuation  points 219 

Ransack  30 

Ray 29 

Reading 11 

Redundancy 94 

Reef 31 

Relative  clauses,  punctuation  of  . .  225 

Relatives 69 

Repetition 92,  104 


PAG» 

Reproduction 177 

Resemblance 12a 

too  remote 154 

Restrictive  clauses 225 

Rhetoric 30 

Rhetoric x  »-i58 

and  grammar 50 

object  in  studying -       9 

Rivals 33 

Rolf 249 

Roman  conquest  of  Britain 241 

Romans  in  Britain 246 

Royal 28 

Ruffian 31 

Rugby 30 

Salutation 166,  767 

Saxon  Conquest 241 

Saxons 24a 

Scandinavian  element 30 

words 248 

School  essays 205 

Scots 24X 

Scratch iH 

Screech 3^ 

Semicolon 219,  22? 

Sentence 22<r 

exclamatory 10? 

interrogative 109 

loose o 99 

periodic 99 

rule 70 

Shakespeare's  vocabulary 24 

Shall 45,  62 

Shame 14 

Sheep 43 

Short  sentences 50 

words 95 

Should 45.  63 

Signature 166,  i63 

Simile 120 

Simple  language 197 

sentence 221 

Slang yt 

expressions ,.,.., i^ 


2/2 


SCHOOL  ENGLISH. 


PAGE 

Sloop 31 

Smoothness 105 

Soiree 31 

Somebody 57 

Something -. 57 

Somnambulist 19 

Sound,  disagreeable 106 

Specific  terms 80 

Spelling 161 

Standard  authors,  usage  of 13 

Stimulus 52 

Style 75 

Subject 59 

for  essays 203 

rule  for 52 

Subordinate  clauses 60 

Substitution , 182 

Summary 217 

Superlative  degree 63 

Superscription 166,  168 

Supplementary  clauses 99 

Sure 45 

Swiftly 18 

Swine 43 

Syllogism 216 

Synecdoche 131 

Synonyms 41 

Synthesis 52 

Taboo 31 

Taste  in  choice  of  words 37 

Tautology , 94 

Telegraph 29 

Telephone .* 29 

Tenses 60 

Terminus 52 

Teutonic  group ._. 240 

That 70 

Thesis 52 

Thor 240 

Thoughts  for  essays 177 

Titles,  punctuation  of 233 

To 61 


PAGE 

Tobacco 31 

Toddy 31 

Transition  period 251 

Translation 189 

"  Traveler's  Song  " 247 

Trench,  "  Study  of  Words  " 33 

Tribulation 16,  33 

Tropes 120 

Unity 80 

Unnecessary  words 93-95 

Urbane 32 

Valor 17 

Veal 43 

Verbosity 95 

Verbs 59-62 

Vertebra 52 

Welsh 243 

Wessex 243 

West  Saxons 243 

Whisky 30 

Whitby 30 

Wiclifs  translation 96 

Wigwam   31 

Will 45,62 

William,  Duke  of  Normandy 249 

Woden 240 

Wordiness 95 

Words,  borrowed 36 

choice  of 95 

English 13-34 

in  same  construction 223 

long 95 

of  nearly  the  same  meaning. . .     44 

order  of 98 

originally  of  one  meaning 43 

short  95 

standing  of 37 

unnecessary 93-95 

Worriting 14 

Would 45-62 


VB  36439 


'^ .  il^u 


54! ;70 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  UBRARY 


■rM. 


